Nowadays, most nurses, pre and post qualification will be required to undertake a literature review at some point, either as part of a course of study, as a key step in the research process or as part of clinical practice development or policy. For student nurses and novice researchers it is often seen as a difficult undertaking. It demands a complex range of skills such as learning how to define topics for exploration, acquiring skills of literature searching and retrieval, developing the ability to analyse and synthesise data as well as becoming adept at writing and reporting, often within a limited time scale. The purpose of this article is to present a step-by-step guide to facilitate understanding by presenting the critical elements of the literature review process. Whilst reference is made to different types of review, the focus is on the traditional or narrative review that is undertaken usually either as an academic assignment or as part of the research process.

Background The one-to-one interview is a commonly used data collection method in health and social research. Increasing attention has been given in the literature to the process of conducting an interview, particularly with respect to the role of the interviewer and the relationship between the interviewer and interviewee. The individual interview is a valuable method of gaining insight into people's perceptions, understandings and experiences of a given phenomenon and can contribute to in-depth data collection. However, the interview is more than a conversational interaction between two people and requires considerable knowledge and skill on behalf of the interviewer. Content Interviews vary in type and structure depending on their philosophical orientation. This article examines the process of conducting the interview from a generic point of view, while making reference to different approaches. Considerations are also raised regarding interviewing in challenging situations. Conclusions Several important stages need to be followed when conducting an interview. The nature of the questions, questioning techniques, listening and the interviewer-interviewee interactions are crucial to obtaining a successful outcome. Similarly, ethical considerations and the protection of participants are fundamental aspects of interviewing. Although interview data may be used as evidence about people's perceptions and understanding, it is pertinent to remember that responses may be shaped by variables such as if and how the interviewer has influenced the interviewee, and the level of trust and rapport between the two people. Hence, it is essential that interviewers are cognisant of the various techniques underpinning the interview process to maximize results.

Al>stractAs with a quantitative study, critical analysis of a qualitative study involves an in-depth review of how each step of the research was undertaken. Qualitative and quantitative studies are, however, fundamentally different approaches to research and therefore need to be considered differently with regard to critiquing. The different philosophical underpinnings of the various qualitative research methods generate discrete ways of reasoning and distinct terminology; however, there are also many similarities within these methods. Because of this and its subjective nature, qualitative research it is often regarded as more difficult to critique. Nevertheless, an evidenced-based profession such as nursing cannot accept research at face value, and nurses need to be able to determine the strengths and limitations of qualitative as well as quantitative research studies when reviewing the available literature on a topic. Key words:Critical appraisal • Qualitative research and quantitative studies are flnidanientally (difFercnc approaches to research and therefore need to be approached differently with regard to g. Qualitative research is essentially an assortment of various approaches that have commonalities as well as differences (Parahoo, 2006).The difierent philosophical underpinnings of the various qualitative research methods generate discrete ways of reasoning and distinct terminology; however, there are many similarities within these methods (Burns and Grove, 1999) that can be categorized together.Qualitative research docs not regard truth as objective, but as a subjective reality that is experienced differently by each individual (Vishnevsky and Beanlands, 2004), Nor do proponents of qualitative research believe that a phenomenon can be isolated into multiple variables that can be studied independently. Qualitative research asserts that a phenomenon is more than the sum of its parts, and must therefore be studied in a holistic manner. As a result, the purpose of this paradigm is not to attempt to generalize data to the population but to Elements Influencing beltevabillty of the studyThe elements mtlucncmg bclicvability can help the reader to focus on what to expect from a piece of research by asking questions regarding the researcher's academic and professional qualifications and the skills demonstrated in presenting the study (Ryan-Wenger, 1992).These questions are similar to those asked when critiquing a quantitative study and were discussed in part I of this article (Coughlan et al, 2007). Questions relating to these elements are presented in Tcihic I. Elements influencing robustness of the study Statement of the phenomenon of interestMany ot the topics examined in research studies are of an abstract nature in that the particular experience may be interpreted differently by another individual, or by the same individual under different circumstances, e.g. when in pain. In qualitative research these abstract encounters or experiences are known as phenomena (Polit and Beck, 2006).The topic being studied...

When caring for patients it is essential that nurses are using the current best practice. To determine what this is, nurses must be able to read research critically. But for many qualified and student nurses the terminology used in research can be difficult to understand thus making critical reading even more daunting. It is imperative in nursing that care has its foundations in sound research and it is thus essential that all nurses have the ability to critically appraise research in order to identify what is best practice. The purpose of this article is to take a step by step approach to critiquing quantitative research in an attempt to help nurses demystify the process and decode the terminology.

Survey research is a non-experimental research approach used to gather information about the incidence and distribution of, and the relationships that exist between, variables in a predetermined population. Its uses include the gathering of data related to attitudes, behaviours and the incidence of events. Survey research in one form or another has existed for over two millennia with the population census of Caesar Augustus (St. Luke's Gospel) being an early example. For most modern researchers sample surveys are more cost effective and easier to undertake than population surveys when gathering information; however, this increases the risk of both representation and measurement errors. There are a number of different forms of survey research; however they all share common steps and common limitations. The purpose of this article is to discuss these steps with a view to highlighting some of the common difficulties. 1 Survey Research