Human subjects consumed biscuits containing either galacto-oligosaccharides or fructo-oligosaccharides in a double-blinded, crossover study. The impact of supplementing the diet with three biscuits per day on the fecal microbiota was evaluated by selective culture of particular bacterial groups, measurement of ␤-galactosidase activity, and nucleic acid-based analytical methods (PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis [PCR-DGGE] and fluorescent in situ hybridization). The composition of the bifidobacterial populations was monitored at the level of species (PCR-DGGE) and strains (pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of DNA digests), and representative cultures were tested quantitatively for their ability to use galacto-oligosaccharides. Technical improvements to DGGE analysis of the microbiota were made by the use of an internal standard that allowed valid comparisons of fragment staining intensities to be made between profiles, the use of S1 nuclease digestion to remove single-stranded DNA to facilitate cloning of DNA sequences cut from gels, and the extraction of RNA to be used as the template in reverse transcription-PCR-DGGE. RNA-DGGE profiles were markedly different (Dice's similarity coefficient, 58.5%) from those generated by DNA-DGGE. Neither the sizes of the bacterial populations nor the DNA-DGGE profiles of the microbiota were altered by the consumption of the biscuits, but the RNA-DGGE profiles were altered by the detection or increased staining intensity of 16S rRNA gene sequences originating from Bifidobacterium adolescentis and/or Colinsella aerofaciens in the feces of 11 of 15 subjects. ␤-Galactosidase activity was elevated in the feces of some subjects as a result of biscuit consumption. Subjects differed in the ability of the bifidobacterial strains harbored in their feces to use galacto-oligosaccharides. Our observations suggest that a phylogenetic approach to analysis of the gut ecosystem may not always be optimal and that a more physiological (biochemical) method might be more informative.The distal intestinal tract of humans harbors a complex bacterial community, referred to as the microbiota, the composition of which is represented in the feces (24). The intestinal microbiota impacts markedly on the immunology, biochemistry, physiology, and nonspecific disease resistance of the host (14). Additionally, in genetically susceptible hosts, the microbiota is an essential factor in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases of the bowel (29). These observations have promoted the view that modification of the composition of the intestinal microbiota by means of dietary supplements might promote health (12,13,27).Probiotics (products containing living bacteria) transiently alter the composition of Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium populations during the period of administration (8,30,32,33), whereas the consumption of prebiotics (potential substrates for bacterial inhabitants of the intestine) has been reported to selectively increase the number of bifidobacteria (4,6,11,16,20,25,34). Inulin and fructo...

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the links between school inspection requirements as represented by Ofsted and the provision of drug education programmes in schools. Design/methodology/approach – An examination of relevant guidance from the Department of Education and the school inspection agency Ofsted; and reference to the research literature and evidence base around drug education. Findings – The provision of drug education programmes in schools is influenced by the requirements of the national curriculum; and the frameworks used by Ofsted in its inspections. Recent reduction in emphasis on drug education in both sources has reduced the extent and quality of drug education in schools. Research limitations/implications – The paper looks at national documentation and conclusions. It is not a quantitative study of school provision – some indication of this is provided by Ofsted reports. Practical implications – The paper indicates that reports and conclusions from Ofsted and other bodies, e.g. House of Commons select committees and the ACMD, have in the recent past reported on rather than informed governmental action. Social implications – The paper concludes that central government support and professional training and development are essential ingredients in the provision of universal drug education in schools. Originality/value – The paper illustrates some of the factors involved in the provision of drug education; the contribution this can make to drug prevention, including harm reduction; and the seeming lack of understanding of education and prevention in the wider professional and political discussions about drugs and their use.

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