Natural stimuli often have time-varying first-order (i.e., mean) and second-order (i.e., variance) attributes that each carry critical information for perception and can vary independently over orders of magnitude. Experiments have shown that sensory systems continuously adapt their responses based on changes in each of these attributes. This adaptation creates ambiguity in the neural code as multiple stimuli may elicit the same neural response. While parallel processing of first-and second-order attributes by separate neural pathways is sufficient to remove this ambiguity, the existence of such pathways and the neural circuits that mediate their emergence have not been uncovered to date. We recorded the responses of midbrain electrosensory neurons in the weakly electric fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus to stimuli with first-and second-order attributes that varied independently in time. We found three distinct groups of midbrain neurons: the first group responded to both first-and second-order attributes, the second group responded selectively to first-order attributes, and the last group responded selectively to second-order attributes. In contrast, all afferent hindbrain neurons responded to both first-and second-order attributes. Using computational analyses, we show how inputs from a heterogeneous population of ON-and OFF-type afferent neurons are combined to give rise to response selectivity to either first-or second-order stimulus attributes in midbrain neurons. Our study thus uncovers, for the first time, generic and widely applicable mechanisms by which parallel processing of first-and second-order stimulus attributes emerges in the brain.

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