Evidence-based medicine (EBM) has brought a substantial change in medical practice and clinical care approach (1-3). It has helped to focus on valid and reliable information to make sound decisions in the area of disease management. Although randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are considered as the reference standard and provide valuable evidence about the efficacy of new treatments, yet they do not answer all important questions about the specific treatment. Most of the knowledge in clinical practice comes from observational studies from which we can gain further experience to plan interventional studies in regards to efficacy, safety and tolerability of approved medicines (4). An observational study is defined as a study that provides estimates and examines associations of events in their natural settings without recourse to experimental intervention (5). It includes cohort studies (CO) ñ prospective and retrospective, crosssectional studies (CS), and case-control studies (CC) (6). Current evidence suggests that observational studies, such as those discussed earlier, both com

Background: Antimicrobial resistance has become a serious global problem. A potential post-antibiotic era is threatening present and future medical advances. In Pakistan, the usage of antibiotic is unnecessarily high and due to over exposure to these drugs, bacteria are developing resistance against these drugs. It is necessary to improve public awareness about the rational use of antibiotics in order to bring a change in consumer’s behaviour. Therefore, present study was undertaken to assess the existing knowledge, attitude and practices related to antibiotic usage among university students.Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out among university students from Karachi, Pakistan during May-June 2018. 200 students were approached to participate in the study of which 159 agreed to participate (males: 70, females: 89). Pretested questionnaire was distributed to the study subjects and the collected data was analyzed using IBM SPSS version 23.Results: Substantial number of (33% and 50%) participants were unaware about the differences in antibiotic: anti-inflammatory drugs and antibiotic: antipyretics respectively. 29% of the participants thought it is right to stop antibiotics only based on symptomatic improvement. Thirty nine percent and eighty three percent participants believed that antibiotics should always be prescribed to treat flu like symptoms and pneumonia respectively.Conclusions: Participants demonstrated average knowledge about antibiotics. Similarly, their attitude and practice toward antibiotic use was associated with misconceptions. An educational intervention is necessary to make them aware about rational use of antibiotics.

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Background: Oral cancers (OC) are malignant lesions occurring in the oral cavity that include squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), salivary gland and odontogenic neoplasms. Even though it is the eighth most common malignancy globally but in Pakistan it is the second commonest type of cancer. Lack of awareness about ill-effects of preventable risk factors of oral cancer increases the burden of disease due to the associated high cost of treatment, permanent impairment and high mortality. Hence, awareness can be very helpful in prevention, control and early diagnosis of oral cancer.Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out among university students from Karachi, Pakistan during April to May 2018. Three hundred students were approached to participate in the study of which 277 agreed to participate. Pretested questionnaire was distributed and collected data was analysed using IBM SPSS version 23.Results: There were 125 (45%) males and 152 (55%) females in the study and response rate was 94%. Sixty one percent (154/250) respondents correctly identified smoking, and tobacco chewing as possible causes of oral cancer. Almost one third (74%; 184/250) respondents correctly responded that oral cancer does not spread from person to person through touch or speaking. Sixty six percent (164/250) respondents believed that oral cancer is curable. Mean score of knowledge was higher in females (61%) than males (53%). Significantly higher number of females compared to male participants answered correctly to questions regarding cause of oral cancer, spread of disease and occurrence of oral cancer in AIDS patients.Conclusions: Participants showed poor knowledge about oral cancer. Female participants showed better knowledge compared to male counterparts. Details about oral cancer should be incorporated in the university curriculum and periodic awareness programs should be organized for students.