This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.

A concept involving the interpersonal expression of perfection, perfectionistic self-presentation, is introduced. It is argued that perfectionistic self-presentation is a maladaptive self-presentational style composed of three facets: perfectionistic self-promotion (i.e., proclaiming and displaying one's perfection), nondisplay of imperfection (i.e., concealing and avoiding behavioral demonstrations of one's imperfection), and nondisclosure of imperfection (i.e., evading and avoiding verbal admissions of one's imperfection). Several studies involving diverse samples demonstrate that perfectionistic self-presentation is a valid and reliable construct and a consistent factor in personal and interpersonal psychological distress. It is argued that the need to promote one's perfection or the desire to conceal one's imperfection involves self-esteem regulation in the interpersonal context.

Recent research by Dweck and associates has shown that feedback that focuses on the attributes of a child rather than the achievement process can promote a sense of contingent self-worth (Kamins & Dweck, 1999;Mueller & Dweck, 1998). Remarkably, this research has shown that even

We tested the hypothesis that self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism are related differentially to unipolar depression. The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale was administered along with measures of depression and anxiety to 22 depressed patients, 22 matched normal control subjects, and 13 anxiety patients. It was found that the depressed patients had higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism than did either the psychiatric or normal control subjects. In addition, depressed patients and anxious patients reported higher levels of socially prescribed perfectionism than did the normal control subjects. The results suggest that various dimensions of perfectionism may play an important role in clinical depression.

Five studies tested the hypotheses that there are individual differences in the frequency of automatic thoughts involving perfectionism and that these thoughts are associated with psychological distress. Research with the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) established that this new measure has adequate psychometric properties, and high PCI scorers tend to spontaneously report perfectionistic thoughts in naturalistic situations. Additional research confirmed that frequent perfectionism thoughts account for unique variance in distress, over and above variance predicted by standard measures of negative automatic thoughts and trait perfectionism measures. Overall, the findings support the view that personality traits involved in depression and anxiety have a cognitive component involving ruminative thoughts and that activation of this cognitive personality component contributes to distress.