To explain the low levels of starch, high levels of (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan, and thick cell walls in grains of Brachypodium distachyon L. relative to those in other Pooideae, aspects of grain development were compared between B. distachyon and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Cell proliferation, cell expansion, and endoreduplication were reduced in B. distachyon relative to barley and, consistent with these changes, transcriptional downregulation of the cell-cycle genes CDKB1 and cyclin A3 was observed. Similarly, reduced transcription of starch synthase I and starch-branching enzyme I was observed as well as reduced activity of starch synthase and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, which are consistent with the lowered starch content in B. distachyon grains. No change was detected in transcription of the major gene involved in (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan synthesis, cellulose synthase-like F6. These results suggest that, while low starch content results from a reduced capacity for starch synthesis, the unusually thick cell walls in B. distachyon endosperm probably result from continuing (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan deposition in endosperm cells that fail to expand. This raises the possibility that endosperm expansion is linked to starch deposition.

Legumes form symbioses with rhizobial bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi that aid plant nutrition. A critical component in the establishment of these symbioses is nuclear-localized calcium (Ca 2+ ) oscillations. Different components on the nuclear envelope have been identified as being required for the generation of the Ca 2+ oscillations. Among these an ion channel, Doesn't Make Infections1, is preferentially localized on the inner nuclear envelope and a Ca 2+ ATPase is localized on both the inner and outer nuclear envelopes. Doesn't Make Infections1 is conserved across plants and has a weak but broad similarity to bacterial potassium channels. A possible role for this cation channel could be hyperpolarization of the nuclear envelope to counterbalance the charge caused by the influx of Ca 2+ into the nucleus. Ca 2+ channels and Ca 2+ pumps are needed for the release and reuptake of Ca 2+ from the internal store, which is hypothesized to be the nuclear envelope lumen and endoplasmic reticulum, but the release mechanism of Ca 2+ remains to be identified and characterized. Here, we develop a mathematical model based on these components to describe the observed symbiotic Ca 2+ oscillations. This model can recapitulate Ca 2+ oscillations, and with the inclusion of Ca 2+ -binding proteins it offers a simple explanation for several previously unexplained phenomena. These include long periods of frequency variation, changes in spike shape, and the initiation and termination of oscillations. The model also predicts that an increase in buffering capacity in the nucleoplasm would cause a period of rapid oscillations. This phenomenon was observed experimentally by adding more of the inducing signal.