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Background Oxidative stress is an important pathogenic factor in influenza A virus infection. It has been found that reactive oxygen species induced by the H9N2 influenza virus is associated with viral replication. However, the mechanisms involved remain to be elucidated. Methods In this study, the role of autophagy was investigated in H9N2 influenza virus-induced oxidative stress and viral replication in A549 cells. Autophagy induced by H9N2 was inhibited by an autophagy inhibitor or RNA interference, the autophagy level, viral replication and the presence of oxidative stress were detected by western blot, TCID50 assay, and Real-time PCR. Then autophagy and oxidative stress were regulated, and viral replication was determined. At last, the Akt/TSC2/mTOR signaling pathways was detected by western blot. Results Autophagy was induced by the H9N2 influenza virus and the inhibition of autophagy reduced the viral titer and the expression of nucleoprotein and matrix protein. The blockage of autophagy suppressed the H9N2 virus-induced increase in the presence of oxidative stress, as evidenced by decreased reactive oxygen species production and malonaldehyde generation, and increased superoxide dismutase 1 levels. The changes in the viral titer and NP mRNA level caused by the antioxidant, N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC), and the oxidizing agent, H2O2, confirmed the involvement of oxidative stress in the control of viral replication. NAC plus transfection with Atg5 siRNA significantly reduced the viral titer and oxidative stress compared with NAC treatment alone, which confirmed that autophagy was involved in the replication of H9N2 influenza virus by regulating oxidative stress. Our data also revealed that autophagy was induced by the H9N2 influenza virus through the Akt/TSC2/mTOR pathway. The activation of Akt or the inhibition of TSC2 suppressed the H9N2 virus-induced increase in the level of LC3-II, restored the decrease in the expression of phospho-pAkt, phospho-mTOR and phospho-pS6 caused by H9N2 infection, suppressed the H9N2-induced increase in the presence of oxidative stress, and resulted in a decrease in the viral titer. Conclusion Autophagy is involved in H9N2 virus replication by regulating oxidative stress via the Akt/TSC2/mTOR signaling pathway. Thus, autophagy maybe a target which may be used to improve antiviral therapeutics.

High energy consumption and excess lithium are required for the preparation of transition metal layered oxide cathodes through high-temperature solid-phase sintering. Exploring new low-cost preparation methods can raise the cost competitiveness of commercial lithium-ion batteries. Herein, nanoscale LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2(NCM111) was prepared via a hydrothermal lithiation process from transition metal sulfates. The dissolution-recrystallization mechanism during the low-temperature hydrothermal process enables the formation of nanoparticles. The nanoscale particle size shortens the diffusion channel of lithium ions, which can significantly boost the rate-performance of NCM111. The high concentration of Li+ in the solution hinders Ni2+ from occupying the 3a site of Li+ during the formation of the layered structure, inhibiting the cation mixing, and the unreacted lithium in the solution can be easily recycled. The conductivity of the material is improved by introducing the high valence ion W6+, while the strong W-O bond stabilizes the layered structure and further restrains cation mixing. The results show that the W-doped NCM111 has a specific capacity of 131.9 mAh/g at an ultra-high discharge rate of 20 C (3200 mAh/g).

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