The participatory creation of maps, above and beyond their interpretation, started in the late 1980s. At that time, development practitioners were inclined to adopt Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods such as sketch mapping (Mascarenhas et al. 1991) rather than the more complex and time consuming scale mapping. Preference was given to eliciting local knowledge and building on local dynamics to facilitate communication between insiders (e.g. villagers) and outsiders (e.g. researchers, government officials, etc.). This approach placed little emphasis on charting courses of action that would enable ordinary people to interact efficiently with policymakers (Rambaldi 2005). The situation was further compounded by state control of aerial photography, satellite imagery and large-scale topographic maps under the pretext of national security concerns.The state of affairs in mapping changed in the '90s, with the diffusion of modern spatial information technologies (including geographic information systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), remote sensing image analysis software and open access to spatial data and imagery via the Internet into the industry. With the steadily decreasing cost of computer hardware and the availability of user-friendly software, spatial data that were previously controlled by government institutions became progressively more accessible 2 to, and mastered by non-governmental and community-based organisations, minority groups and sectors of society traditionally disenfranchised and excluded from spatial decision making processes (Fox et al. 2003). The new environment facilitated the integration of geo-spatial information technologies and systems (GIT&S) into community-centred initiatives. GIT practitioners and researchers around the world were able to adopt a range of GIT&S to integrate multiple realities and diverse forms of information with the objective of empowering underprivileged groups, promote social learning, support two-way communication and thereby broaden public participation across socio-economic contexts, locations and sectors. This merging of community development with geo-spatial technologies for the empowerment of less privileged communities has come to be known as Participatory Geographic Information Systems or PGIS.

A rguments about Geographic Information System (GIS) development and applications have often slipped into a discourse about technological determinism. GIS proponents and critics alike argue as if the technology is independent of the society within which it is located and applied. The polarized nature of the debate has obscured the true relationships between GIS and human societies. The criticisms undermine attempts being made to transfer the technology into indigenous and local communities. The associations of GIS with tools used by the rich and powerful members in society to entrench their power also pose a great challenge to practitioners to seek alternative uses of the technology. Therefore, in recent times, GIS has increasingly been used to promote the interests of indigenous people and grassroots organizations. This GIS movement, often referred to as the Public Participation Geographic Information System (PPGIS), seeks to develop a GIS that will be "adaptable to input from regular citizens and non-official sources" (Obermeyer 1998, 65).This article reviews the GIS debate in the context of the transfer, adoption, and applications of the technology in sub-Saharan Africa. A discussion of the effects of the debate on the adoption of GIS in sub-Saharan African countries is followed by an explanation of factors that make it necessary for countries in the region to adopt and use the system. Problems associated with GIS adoption in local African communities are acknowledged, and attention is drawn to ways by which the technology could be used as a tool in the service of the communities. Finally, a case study in southern Ghana is described to demonstrate how GIS can be used by local community representatives to plan for the protection of local forest resources. AbstractGeographic Information System's (GIS's) capabilities for gathering and disseminating information have been hailed as democratizing, whereas the system is simultaneously criticized as inherently authoritarian. These contradictory characterizations of GIS permeate the current debate on transfer and applications of the technology in indigenous communities. This article reviews the debate in the context of GIS adoption in sub-Saharan Africa. A case study is presented to demonstrate how GIS can be used to assist local community representatives to plan for the protection of local forest resources. The results of the study, which was implemented at Kofiase in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, reinforce the belief that GIS can be used for the benefit of indigenous groups rather than for their disempowerment.

This paper discusses the mobile phone boom in Africa and examines the potential impacts of mobiles on the socio-economic development process in African countries. Drawing on data from case studies, the paper explains that mobile phones may not just help create new jobs and new sources of revenue to the state but can also contribute to economic growth by widening markets, creating better information flow, lowering transaction costs, and becoming substitute for costly transportation that is lacking in rural Africa. On the social front, the paper contends that the mobile phone can help create unique personal identities and status symbols for some users. The technology also facilitates the democratic process as groups can use the enhanced communication tools for political and community action thereby reducing the reliance on conventional and often government controlled media. The paper discusses these and other ways by which mobile phones can influence conditions in Africa to induce changes that promote economic and social development. The paper concludes with suggestions that can strengthen ICT adoption in African countries.

This article reviews the discourse about geographic information system's (GIS) potential as a tool for intervening in disputes over access to natural resources. GIS is a planning tool with striking analytical capabilities and a great public appeal that can be utilized for explicitly reasoned discussions to facilitate conflict resolution. However, the technology's reputation as an interventionist tool has been undermined by competing claims about human factors that sustain conflicts. Some scholars believe elements of a conflict are manageable and that meaningful communication between disputants will erase misconceptions and generate consensus. Others reject cooperation and instead emphasize self-interest and competition as the driving forces behind conflicts. This article investigates the two claims and argues that both the competitive push to claim independent rewards and the urge to create joint values are present in a conflict resolution. A more productive discussion of GIS's role in conflict management, therefore, involves unpacking the links between competitive forces that sustain a conflict and the social norms and group expectations that govern human behavior in society. The article discusses the links between value systems, opinions, and actions and how a GIS application might influence such human attributes to induce changes that promote cooperation. The study concludes with a case study involving the use of GIS to manage a conflict over natural resources allocation in a rural community in Southern Ghana. Key Words: conflict resolution, Participatory GIS, resource management, values and interests, Ghana.T wo theories are evident in current thinking about the role GIS plays in conciliative attempts that occur in resource management organizations. On one hand, Weber's explanation of instrumental rational behavior and interpretations of the theory dismiss cooperative moves to resolve conflicts and instead, emphasize self-interest and competition as the factors that sustain conflicts. Advocates of this viewpoint maintain that the competitive urge to claim independent rewards compels parties to adopt positions that are often difficult to reconcile. The proponents therefore argue that when information about a conflict becomes available, disputants use it to confirm their predetermined positions. On the other hand, Habermas's communication theory identifies social institutions, including norms, sanctions, and networks of social interaction as forces behind conflict resolution. The viewpoint assumes that elements of a conflict are malleable and that cooperation and meaningful communication between disputants will erase misconceptions and induce mutual agreements.Each of these theories contains a measure of truth that reflects a real aspect of the conflict-mediation process. They, therefore, provide frameworks for understanding aspects of stakeholders' behavior during a conflict. However, considered separately, the theories do not fully address all the factors that motivate groups to prolong or resolve conflicts ...

Participatory GIS (PGIS) applications provide tools that allow underprivileged groups to make a case for recognition, participation, and political access. These community-based applications have therefore become the focal point for claims about public participation and empowerment. However, empowerment is a difficult and complex process necessitating the transformation of bureaucratic organizations into flexible institutions that address the concerns of marginalized groups in society. This process involves shifts in power relations during which PGIS organizations confront deeply embedded structures and vested political interests. Opposition from local leaders, unfamiliar customs and rituals, and lack of infrastructure and skilled GIS personnel impede successful participation and empowerment. Additionally, reliance on external sources of funding and expertise for PGIS projects severely limits their long-term sustainability. To date, PGIS applications have produced case studies about attempts to empower communities, but few studies have focused on how the community-based organizations and the contexts of PGIS applications mediate the community empowerment process. This article explores ways in which the internal and external environments of a PGIS organization influence the community empowerment process. Experiences from PGIS studies in southern Ghana are used to illustrate the constraints that these factors impose on community empowerment.