BackgroundCompliant vascular phantoms are desirable for in-vitro patient-specific experiments and device testing. TangoPlus FullCure 930® is a commercially available rubber-like material that can be used for PolyJet rapid prototyping. This work aims to gather preliminary data on the distensibility of this material, in order to assess the feasibility of its use in the context of experimental cardiovascular modelling.MethodsThe descending aorta anatomy of a volunteer was modelled in 3D from cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) images and rapid prototyped using TangoPlus. The model was printed with a range of increasing wall thicknesses (0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 1.0 and 1.5 mm), keeping the lumen of the vessel constant. Models were also printed in both vertical and horizontal orientations, thus resulting in a total of ten specimens. Compliance tests were performed by monitoring pressure variations while gradually increasing and decreasing internal volume. Knowledge of distensibility was thus derived and then implemented with CMR data to test two applications. Firstly, a patient-specific compliant model of hypoplastic aorta suitable for connection in a mock circulatory loop for in-vitro tests was manufactured. Secondly, the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) of a patient necessitating pulmonary valve replacement was printed in order to physically test device insertion and assess patient’s suitability for percutaneous pulmonary valve intervention.ResultsThe distensibility of the material was identified in a range from 6.5 × 10-3 mmHg-1 for the 0.6 mm case, to 3.0 × 10-3 mmHg-1 for the 1.5 mm case. The models printed in the vertical orientation were always more compliant than their horizontal counterpart. Rapid prototyping of a compliant hypoplastic aorta and of a RVOT anatomical model were both feasible. Device insertion in the RVOT model was successful.ConclusionValues of distensibility, compared with literature data, show that TangoPlus is suitable for manufacturing arterial phantoms, with the added benefit of being compatible with PolyJet printing, thus guaranteeing representative anatomical finishing, and quick and inexpensive fabrication. The appealing possibility of printing models of non-uniform wall thickness, resembling more closely certain physiological scenarios, can also be explored. However, this material appears to be too stiff for modelling the more compliant systemic venous system.

Linear and depressed skull fractures are frequent mechanisms of head injury and are often associated with traumatic brain injury. Accurate knowledge of the fracture of cranial bone can provide insight into the prevention of skull fracture injuries and help aid the design of energy absorbing head protection systems and safety helmets. Cranial bone is a complex material comprising of a three-layered structure: external layers consist of compact, high-density cortical bone and the central layer consists of a low-density, irregularly porous bone structure.In this study, cranial bone specimens were extracted from 8 fresh-frozen cadavers (F=4, M=4; 81±11 yrs old). 63 specimens were obtained from the parietal and frontal cranial bones. Prior to testing, all specimens were scanned using a µCT scanner at a resolution of 56.9µm. The specimens were tested in a three-point bend set-up at different dynamic speeds (0.5, 1 and 2.5 m/s). The associated mechanical properties that were calculated for each specimen include the 2 nd moment of inertia, the sectional elastic modulus, the maximum force at failure, the energy absorbed until failure and the maximum bending stress. Additionally, the morphological parameters of each specimen and their correlation with the resulting mechanical parameters were examined.It was found that testing speed, strain rate, cranial sampling position and intercranial variation all have a significant effect on some or all of the computed mechanical parameters. A modest correlation was also found between percent bone volume and both the elastic modulus and the maximum bending stress.

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The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether an energy failure level applies to the skull fracture mechanics in unembalmed post-mortem human heads under dynamic frontal loading conditions. A double-pendulum model was used to conduct frontal impact tests on specimens from 18 unembalmed post-mortem human subjects. The specimens were isolated at the occipital condyle level, and pre-test computed tomography images were obtained. The specimens were rigidly attached to an aluminum pendulum in an upside down position and obtained a single degree of freedom, allowing motion in the plane of impact. A steel pendulum delivered the impact and was fitted with a flat-surfaced, cylindrical aluminum impactor, which distributed the load to a force sensor. The relative displacement between the two pendulums was used as a measure for the deformation of the specimen in the plane of impact. Three impact velocity conditions were created: low (3.60+/-0.23 m/sec), intermediate (5.21+/-0.04 m/sec), and high (6.95+/-0.04 m/sec) velocity. Computed tomography and dissection techniques were used to detect pathology. If no fracture was detected, repeated tests on the same specimen were performed with higher impact energy until fracture occurred. Peak force, displacement and energy variables were used to describe the biomechanics. Our data suggests the existence of an energy failure level in the range of 22-24 J for dynamic frontal loading of an intact unembalmed head, allowed to move with one degree of freedom. Further experiments, however, are necessary to confirm that this is a definitive energy criterion for skull fracture following impact.

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