BackgroundPoor information privacy practices have been identified in health apps. Medical app accreditation programs offer a mechanism for assuring the quality of apps; however, little is known about their ability to control information privacy risks. We aimed to assess the extent to which already-certified apps complied with data protection principles mandated by the largest national accreditation program.MethodsCross-sectional, systematic, 6-month assessment of 79 apps certified as clinically safe and trustworthy by the UK NHS Health Apps Library. Protocol-based testing was used to characterize personal information collection, local-device storage and information transmission. Observed information handling practices were compared against privacy policy commitments.ResultsThe study revealed that 89 % (n = 70/79) of apps transmitted information to online services. No app encrypted personal information stored locally. Furthermore, 66 % (23/35) of apps sending identifying information over the Internet did not use encryption and 20 % (7/35) did not have a privacy policy. Overall, 67 % (53/79) of apps had some form of privacy policy. No app collected or transmitted information that a policy explicitly stated it would not; however, 78 % (38/49) of information-transmitting apps with a policy did not describe the nature of personal information included in transmissions. Four apps sent both identifying and health information without encryption. Although the study was not designed to examine data handling after transmission to online services, security problems appeared to place users at risk of data theft in two cases.ConclusionsSystematic gaps in compliance with data protection principles in accredited health apps question whether certification programs relying substantially on developer disclosures can provide a trusted resource for patients and clinicians. Accreditation programs should, as a minimum, provide consistent and reliable warnings about possible threats and, ideally, require publishers to rectify vulnerabilities before apps are released.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12916-015-0444-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

This study analyzes why firms use both internal and external design, and attempts to understand the determinants of design architecture choices. It is based on the design literature that analyzes the compared benefits of internal, external, and combined design, and it mobilizes the concept of vertical architecture that designates at the level of the firm the configurations of transactional choices along the firm's value chain. The research methodology follows an exploratory multiple case study of fashion triads (manufacturer, designer, and retailer) theoretically sampled according to the design position (internal, external, or combination) relative to the manufacturer and retailer. Data were collected through face‐to‐face interviews and archival documents. The 31 triad cases were clustered into five industry architectures (IAs). The IAs are characterized as follows. Designer‐led architecture, in which the three players are independent, offers an advantage in terms of branding and creativity. Manufacturer‐led architecture, in which design is internal to the manufacturer, is recognized in terms of cost‐effectiveness and speed of development process. Retailer‐led architecture, in which design is internal to retail, offers advantages in terms of speed of development process and fit with market needs. Finally, the two hybrid architectures—licensing designer and designer retailer cobranding—with a combination of internal and external design are recognized in terms of cobranding and innovation. Through this process, the authors identify three determinants of design architecture choices (efficiency, level of fashion innovativeness, and innovation type) that can be grouped into two main opposing determinants: efficiency and innovativeness. Internal design offers greater efficiency, whereas external design provides increased innovativeness. Efficiency and innovation act in tension, there is no IA that offers both high efficiency and high innovativeness, there is a trade‐off effect. But the tension between efficiency and innovativeness can be reconciled by combining internal and external design. Unlike prior literature, this research analyzes vertical choices with regard to choosing among a menu of IAs instead of transactions, and focuses on a distinctly creative activity. External design also offers an “ingredient brand” that end customers may recognize. The authors propose additional research for the generalization of these results.

This paper aims to contribute to the literature on research spin-offs (SOs) and strategic alliances. The research SO phenomenon has attracted significant attention in recent years. Yet, research SOs might present a particular situation regarding their economic development. Therefore, the paper focuses on the relevance of traditional industrial partnerships and introduces a new and complementary approach for studying and analysing the role of alliances for this particular kind of firm. The results of a questionnaire investigation of Italian research SOs with and without a traditional industrial partner are investigated and supported by a linear regression model. Due to recent initiatives -a growing interest in the research SO phenomenon -and the increasing number of established research SOs, Italy is a suitable case study for such an investigation. Nonetheless, the results are generalizable beyond the Italian case. The findings demonstrate thought-provoking -and somehow unexpected -results regarding the role of traditional alliances in shaping the geographical and industrial environment as well as the performance, added value, age and production process of the company. This calls for a broader perspective regarding industrial partnerships and research SOs: it reflects new modes of relations for these particular firms in the form of business ecosystems, either they are physical or they are digital.