Plant polyploidization is frequently associated with changes in nutrient contents. However, the possible contribution of metabolites to this change has not been investigated by characterizing the metabolite contents of diploid and tetraploid forms of rice (Oryza sativa L.). We compared the metabolites of a group of diploid–tetraploid japonica brown rice and a group of diploid–tetraploid indica brown rice based on liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. In total, 401 metabolites were identified; of these, between the two diploid–tetraploid groups, 180 showed opposite expression trends, but 221 showed the same trends (147 higher abundance vs. 74 lower abundance). Hierarchical cluster analysis of differential metabolites between diploid and tetraploid species showed a clear grouping pattern, in which the expression abundance of lipids, amino acids and derivatives, and phenolic acids increased in tetraploids. Further analysis revealed that the lipids in tetraploid rice increased significantly, especially unsaturated fatty acids and phospholipids. This study provides further basis for understanding the changes in rice nutritional quality following polyploidization and may serve as a new theoretical reference for breeding eutrophic or functional rice varieties via polyploidization.

Background Allopolyploid breeding is an efficient technique for improving the low seed setting rate of autotetraploids in plant breeding and one of the most promising breeding methods. However, there have been few comprehensive studies of the posttranscriptional mechanism in allopolyploids. Results By crossing cultivated rice (Oryza sativa, genome AA) with wild rice (Oryza punctata, genome BB), we created hybrid rice lines with different ploidy and genome compositions [diploid hybrid F01 (AB), allotetraploid hybrid F02 (AABB) and F03 (AAAB)]. The genetic differences of the hybrids and the mechanism of allopolyploid breeding dominance were revealed through morphological and cytological observations and single molecule real-time sequencing techniques. The tissues and organs of allotetraploid hybrid F02 exhibited "gigantism" and the highest levels of fertility. The numbers of non-redundant transcripts, gene loci and new isoforms in the polyploid rice lines were higher and the isoform lengths greater than those of the diploid line. Moreover, alternative splicing (AS) events occurred twice as often in the polyploid rice lines than the diploid line. During these events, intron retention dominated. Furthermore, a large number of new genes and isoforms specific to the lines of different ploidy were discovered. Conclusions The results indicated that alternative polyadenylation (APA) and AS events contributed to the complexity and superiority of polyploids in the activity of translation regulators, nucleic acid binding transcription factor activities and the regulation of molecular function. Therefore, these APA and AS events in allopolyploid rice were found to play a role in regulation. Our study provides new germplasm for polyploid rice breeding and reveals complex regulatory mechanisms that may be related to heterosis and fertility.

Background: Plant polyploidization is frequently associated with changes in nutrient contents. However, the possible contribution of metabolites to this change has not been investigated by characterizing the metabolite contents of diploid and tetraploid forms of rice ( Oryza sativa L.). Results: We compared the metabolites of a group of diploid–tetraploid japonica brown rice and a group of diploid–tetraploid indica brown rice based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In total, 401 differential expression metabolites were identified between diploids and tetraploids; of these, between the japonica and indica groups, 180 showed opposite expression trends but 221 showed the same trends (141 up-regulated vs 69 down-regulated). Hierarchical cluster analysis of differential metabolites between diploid and tetraploid species showed a clear grouping pattern, in which the relative contents of lipids, amino acids and derivatives, and phenolic acids increased in tetraploids. Further analysis revealed that the lipids in tetraploid rice increased significantly, especially unsaturated fatty acids and phospholipids. Conclusions: This study provides more basis for the changes in rice nutritional quality following polyploidization, and may serve as a new theoretical reference for breeding eutrophic or functional rice varieties via polyploidization.

Background: Allopolyploid breeding is an efficient technique for improving the low seeding rate of autotetraploids in plant breeding and one of the most promising breeding methods. However, there have been few comprehensive studies of the posttranscriptional mechanism in allopolyploids.Results: By crossing cultivated rice (Oryza sativa, genome AA) with wild rice (Oryza punctata, genome BB), we created hybrid rice lines with different ploidy and genome compositions [diploid F01 (AB), allotetraploid F02 (AABB) and F03 (AAAB)]. The genetic differences of the hybrids and the mechanism of allopolyploid breeding dominance were revealed through morphological and cytological observations and single molecule real-time sequencing techniques. The tissues and organs of allotetraploid rice F02 exhibited "gigantism" and the highest levels of fertility. The numbers of non-redundant transcripts, gene loci and new isoforms in the polyploid rice lines were higher and the isoform lengths greater than those of the diploid line. Moreover, alternative splicing (AS) events occurred twice as often in the polyploid rice lines than the diploid line. During these events, intron retention dominated. Furthermore, a large number of new genes and isoforms specific to the lines of different ploidy were discovered. Conclusions: The results indicated that alternative polyadenylation (APA) and AS events contributed to the complexity and superiority of polyploids in the activity of translation regulators, nucleic acid binding transcription factor activities and the regulation of molecular function. Therefore, these APA and AS events in allopolyploid rice were found to play a role in regulation. Our study provides new germplasm for polyploid rice breeding and reveals complex regulatory mechanisms that may be related to heterosis and fertility.

Polyploidization is a major trend in plant evolution that has many advantages over diploid. Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli L.) has many good characteristics, but has not been fully utilized until now. In this study, we report for the first time the in vitro induction of autoallo-dodecaploid E. crus-galli by colchicine treatment. Calli derived from young panicles were transferred to liquid medium containing different concentrations of colchicine (0.01, 0.05, or 0.1% w/v) and incubated for 24, 48, or 72 h. Treatment with 0.05% colchicine for 48 h was the most effective condition for producing polyploid plants, yielding 42.9% dodecaploids. The relative DNA content of the induced dodecaploids was twice that of wild-type hexaploids. The chromosome number of dodecaploids was 2n = 12x = 108, whereas that of hexaploids was 2n = 6x = 54. Compared with the hexaploids, the dodecaploids had larger individual stomata, but a lower stomatal density. There were significant differences between dodecaploid and hexaploid plants in terms of morphological variables, such as plant height, leaf length, panicle length, and grain size. Dodecaploid plants showed the obvious “gigas” effects of polyploid organs, as well as significantly reduced seed set. The nutritional concentrations of crude protein, crude fat, crude ash, and nitrogen-free extract in the dodecaploid were higher than those in the hexaploid, whereas the concentration of crude fiber in the dodecaploid was lower. Compared with the hexaploid, the concentrations of calcium, iron and some free amino acids in dodecaploid plants were significantly higher than in hexaploids. The dodecaploid E. crus-galli had been obtained successfully by treating calli with colchicine. And E. crus-galli has the potential to be developed as a new type of high quality forage crop for cultivation under stress conditions, especially the dodecaploid with its greater nutritional value.