Examination of microscopic sections of animal tissues reveals facts which are not always related to its normal histology or pathology. Processing of tissue specimens consists of lengthy procedures from the stage of surgical removal to the stained and mounted microscopic sections. Defects are common in tissue sections as a result of faulty procedures. These defects are referred to as artifacts. They lead to misinterpretation of histopathological diagnosis but at times they throw limelight into diagnosis. This paper attempts to put together all the facts regarding the various artifacts that are encountered in histopathology.

BACKGROUND Dysmenorrhea is a common menstrual problem which is encountered in young women and needs emphasis. It leads to social withdrawal, absenteeism from school and work.The aim of the study is to know the prevalence of primary dysmenorrhea in unmarried women less than 25 years of age without organic pathology and to understand the distribution of various risk factors. MATERIALS AND METHODSThis is a hospital-based, prospective, cross-sectional study conducted for a period of 1 year. Unmarried women <25 years without any organic pathology attending the Gynaecology Outpatient Department with complaints of dysmenorrhea were included in the study. A questionnaire was given to them and results tabulated. RESULTSPrevalence of dysmenorrhea was 58%, 17% presented with severe dysmenorrhea. Social withdrawal was seen in 12% of cases. Dysmenorrhea beyond 17 years was seen in 54% of cases, 48% were from rural areas, 58% cases were from low socioeconomic group and 32% were underweight. 59% of cases attained menarche after 12 years of age and 41% before 12 years. Irregular menstruation was seen in 38% of cases, positive family history was seen in 35% of cases. 92% of cases had dysmenorrhea during menstruation. 93% cases adopted more than one method as therapy, they being, application of heat, abdominal massage and intake of anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS). CONCLUSIONDysmenorrhea in young women is a major problem and needs to be effectively managed. In the present study, 17% suffered from severe dysmenorrhea. Social withdrawal was seen in 12% of cases. The subjects who consumed egg, fruits and tea everyday suffered from mild dysmenorrhea. Majority of the subjects took Paracetamol as a treatment for dysmenorrhea. Severe dysmenorrhea was controlled by intake of oral contraceptives.

BACKGROUND Most common operation performed in any obstetric institute is caesarean section. Worldwide, there is increasing rate of caesarean section. Most important indication is repeat caesarean section. Hence, unless we reduce the primary caesarean section rate, we cannot control the total caesarean section rate. The aim of the present study was to analyse critically the indications and complications of elective caesarean section performed on primigravida and pregnancy with previous miscarriages in a tertiary care centre. MATERIALS AND METHODS This is a prospective descriptive study conducted in Government General Hospital, Vijayawada. All cases of primary elective caesarean sections performed on primigravida or pregnancy with previous miscarriages who reached the period of viability for first time in the present pregnancy were taken up for present study. The present study was conducted in Government General Hospital, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh from the month of April 2017 to September 2017, that is for 6 months. All cases of primary elective caesarean sections were analysed for the indication of surgery and postoperative complications. Maternal and perinatal outcome was noted. All patients were followed till discharge. RESULTS Present study comprised of 210 (n= 210) pregnant women who underwent primary elective caesarean section in primigravida and pregnancy with previous abortions. Indications and complications of primary elective caesarean section were analysed. Indications for caesarean sections were liberalised in present days. Operation is being performed for more of foetal indications in view of improved neonatal facilities. Present study analysis showed that 18.7% of sections in Breech 9.5%, 7% in CPD, short primi 7.6%, preeclampsia 11.9%, oligohydramnios 28.1%, long marital life 2.3%, IUGR 3.3%, placenta previa 0.4% and others remaining. The analysis showed changing trends of caesarean section, more liberalisation of indications like long marital life and elderly primi. No perinatal loss. A very few postoperative complications like blood transfusion and surgical site infections were seen. CONCLUSION Because of small family norm in the present days, obstetrician and family cannot afford to lose even one baby. Even low Apgar baby was also not accepted. With the advent of regular antenatal care, all foetal and maternal complications were picked up early. Good anaesthetic facilities made caesarean the safest mode of delivery for the mother and the baby.

Every maternal death was scrutinized for various aspects likely to be related to death such as age, locality of residence, antenatal care, admission death interval and the cause of death. RESULTS: The maternal mortality in the present study is 788/ 1 lakh live births. There were 62 maternal deaths in the study period. Most deaths occurred in the 20-25 age group. 51.6% of deaths occurred in the first seventy two hours after admission. Hypertensive disorders (25.80%) and hemorrhage (12.5%) are the two most common direct causes of maternal death. Post-operative and post abortal sepsis, amniotic fluid embolism, pulmonary embolism and peripartum cardiomyopathy are the other direct causes. Indirect causes of maternal deaths were seen in 34.9% of the cases. Hepatitis (9.64%), severe anemia is the two leading indirect causes of maternal deaths. CONCLUSION: Most of the maternal deaths can be prevented if the high risk antenatal women are identified earlier and referred to the tertiary centre earlier for diagnosis and management

BACKGROUND Preeclampsia is one of the important causes of maternal and perinatal mortality in India. This study was conducted to evaluate the maternal and perinatal complications and outcome associated with preeclampsia. The aim of the study is to evaluate the maternal and perinatal outcome of preeclampsia and its complications. MATERIALS AND METHODS A descriptive study was conducted on 100 consecutive women admitted with preeclampsia and its complication to Government General Hospital Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, from May 2017 to September 2017. The emergency and elective admissions were followed for mode of delivery. Maternal and perinatal outcomes were followed till discharge. RESULTS In the present study, 100 consecutive admissions with preeclampsia and its complications at different gestational ages were studied. In total 100 cases 39% were referred from rural areas with a referral slip associated with complications, 57% patients were delivered by abdominal route and 43% were delivered vaginally. Overall, perinatal deaths were 15. CONCLUSION Preeclampsia is an important disorder in obstetrics. Early identification and prompt diagnosis and treatment decreases maternal and perinatal mortality and morbidity.