NFκB plays an important role in inflammation and bone remodelling. Tumour necrosis factor receptor associated factor 2 (TRAF2), a key component of NFκB signalling, has been identified as an oncogene, but its role in the regulation of breast cancer osteolytic metastasis remains unknown. Here, we report that stable overexpression of TRAF2 in parental and osteotropic sub-clones of human MDA-MB-231 (MDA-231) breast cancer cells increased cell growth and motility in vitro, whereas TRAF2 knockdown was inhibitory. In vivo, TRAF2 overexpression in the parental MDA-231-P cells enhanced tumour growth after orthotopic injection into the mammary fat pad of mice but failed to promote the metastasis of these cells to bone. In contrast, overexpression of TRAF2 in osteotropic MDA-231-BT cells increased skeletal tumour growth, enhanced osteoclast formation and worsened osteolytic bone loss after intra-tibial injection in mice. Mechanistic and functional studies in osteotropic MDA-231-BT and osteoclasts revealed that upregulation of TRAF2 increased the ability of osteotropic MDA-231-BT cells to migrate and to enhance osteoclastogenesis by a mechanism dependent, at least in part, on NFκB activation. Thus, the TRAF2/NFκB axis is implicated in the regulation of skeletal tumour burden and osteolysis associated with advanced breast cancer.

Although intestinal metabolism plays an important role in drug disposition, early predictions of human outcomes are challenging, in-part due to limitations of available in vitro models. To address this, we have evaluated three in vitro models of human intestine (microsomes, permeabilized enterocytes, and cryopreserved intestinal mucosal epithelium) as tools to assess intestinal metabolism and estimate the fraction escaping gut metabolism (f g) in drug discovery. The models were tested with a chemically diverse set of 32 compounds, including substrates for oxidoreductive, hydrolytic, and conjugative enzymes. Liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) was used to quantify substrate disappearance (CL int) and qualify metabolite formation (QuanQual). Fraction unbound in the incubation (f u,inc) was determined by rapid-equilibrium dialysis (RED). Measured in vitro results [intrinsic clearance (CL int) and f u,inc ] were supplemented with literature data [passive Caco-2 A→B permeability, enterocyte blood flow (Q ent), and intestinal surface area (A)] and combined using a midazolam-calibrated Q gut model to predict human f g values. All three models showed reliable cytochrome P450 (CYP) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) activities, but enterocytes and mucosa may offer advantages for low clearance compounds and alternative pathways (e.g. sulfation, hydrolases, and flavin-containing monooxigenases). Early predictions of human f g values were acceptable for the high f g compounds (arbitrarily f g >0.7). However, predictions of low and moderate f g values (arbitrarily f g <0.7) remain challenging, indicating that further evaluation is needed (e.g. saturation effects and impact of transporters), but not immediate compound avoidance. Results suggest that tested models offer an additional value in drug discovery, especially for drug design and chemotype evaluation.

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