SUMMARY Purpose To investigate the characteristics of intracranial ictal high frequency oscillations (HFOs). Methods Among neocortical epilepsy patients who underwent intracranial monitoring and surgery, we studied patients with well-defined, unifocal seizure onsets characterized by discrete HFOs (≥70 Hz). Patients with multifocal or bilateral independent seizure onsets, EEG acquired at <1,000 Hz sampling rate and non-resective surgery were excluded. Based on a prospectively-defined protocol, we defined the seizure onset zone (SOZ) presurgically to include only those channels with HFOs that showed subsequent sustained evolution (HFOs+ev channels) but not the channels that lacked evolution (HFOs-ev channels). We then resected the SOZ as defined above, 1 cm of the surrounding cortex and immediate spread area, modified by the presence of eloquent cortex in the vicinity. For purposes of this study, we also defined the SOZ based on the conventional frequency activity (CFA: <70 Hz) at seizure onset although that information was not considered for preoperative determination of the surgical boundary. We investigated the temporal and spatial characteristics of the ictal HFOs post-hoc by visual and spectral methods, and also compared them to the seizure onset defined by the CFA. Key Findings Out of 14 consecutive neocortical epilepsy patients, six patients met the inclusion criteria. MRI was normal or showed heterotopia. All had subdural electrodes, with additional intracerebral depth electrodes in some. Electrode coverage was extensive (median 94 channels), including limited contralateral coverage. Seizure onsets were lobar or multilobar. Resections were performed per protocol except in two patients where complete resection of the SOZ could not be done due to overlap with speech area. Histology was abnormal in all patients. Postoperative outcome was class I/II (n=5, 83%) or class III over a mean follow-up of 27 months. Post-hoc analysis of 15 representative seizures showed that the ictal HFOs were widespread at seizure onset but evolved subsequently with different characteristics. In contrast to HFOs-ev, the HFOs+ev were significantly higher in peak frequency (97.1 versus 89.1 Hz, p=0.001), more robust (nearly 2-fold higher peak power, p<0.0001), and spatially restricted [mean 12.2 versus 22.4 channels; odds ratio (OR) 0.51, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.42–0.62; p<0.0001]. The seizure onset defined by HFOs+ev was earlier (by an average of 0.41 sec), and occurred in a significantly different and smaller distribution (OR 0.27, 95% CI 0.21–0.34, p<0.0001), than the seizure onset defined by the CFA. As intended, the HFOs+ev channels were 10 times more likely to have been resected than the HFOs-ev channels (OR 9.7, 95% CI 5–17, p<0.0001). Significance Our study demonstrates the widespread occurrence of ictal HFOs at seizure onset, outlines a practical method to localize the SOZ based on their restricted pattern of evolution, and highlights the differences between the SOZs defined by HFOs and CFA. We show that smaller...

The spatially periodic activity of grid cells in the entorhinal cortex (EC) of the rodent, primate, and human provides a coordinate system that, together with the hippocampus, informs an individual of its location relative to the environment and encodes the memory of that location. Among the most defining features of grid-cell activity are the 60°rotational symmetry of grids and preservation of grid scale across environments. Grid cells, however, do display a limited degree of adaptation to environments. It remains unclear if this level of environment invariance generalizes to human grid-cell analogs, where the relative contribution of visual input to the multimodal sensory input of the EC is significantly larger than in rodents. Patients diagnosed with nontractable epilepsy who were implanted with entorhinal cortical electrodes performing virtual navigation tasks to memorized locations enabled us to investigate associations between grid-like patterns and environment. Here, we report that the activity of human entorhinal cortical neurons exhibits adaptive scaling in grid period, grid orientation, and rotational symmetry in close association with changes in environment size, shape, and visual cues, suggesting scale invariance of the frequency, rather than the wavelength, of spatially periodic activity. Our results demonstrate that neurons in the human EC represent space with an enhanced flexibility relative to neurons in rodents because they are endowed with adaptive scalability and context dependency.grid cell | spatial memory | entorhinal cortex | single unit | human

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