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The purpose of this study was to investigate the cytokine profiles in plasma and aqueous humor of patients with choroidal neovascularization (CNV) due to exudative AMD and polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV). METHODS. In this cross-sectional study, 16 patients clinically diagnosed with AMD, 18 patients with PCV, and 50 age-and sex-matched cataract patients without AMD/PCV (controls) were enrolled. Study subjects were treatment naïve, and 200 lL undiluted aqueous humor and 5 mL peripheral venous blood were collected from the study subjects. Clinical samples were analyzed for 41 different cytokines by Luminex bead-based multiplex assay. Cytokines concentrations with detection rates of 50% or more were included for the analysis, and the differences in plasma and aqueous humor cytokines levels between each group were analyzed. RESULTS. The age of the patients with AMD and PCV was 70.62 6 10.15 (mean 6 SD) and 71.48 6 9.08 years, respectively, and that in the control group was 62.8 6 10.67 years. Aqueous humor cytokines growth-regulated oncogene (GRO), macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC), and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1a were significantly higher in AMD patients than controls (all P < 0.04), and GRO, MDC, MIP-1a, IL-8, IFN-c-inducible protein 10, and monocyte chemotactic protein levels were significantly higher in PCV patients than controls (all P < 0.03). Soluble CD40 ligand and platelet-derived growth factor-AA levels were higher in plasma of healthy controls compared with AMD subjects. No significant differences in cytokine levels were observed between AMD and PCV patients for both plasma and aqueous humor. CONCLUSIONS. In AMD and PCV patients, our data suggest that the pathologic changes are primarily driven by dysregulation of local immune factors in the eye, whereas the plasma cytokine levels are not elevated.

Alterations in ocular blood flow have been implicated in mechanisms that lead to vision loss in patients with various ocular disorders such as diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration. Assessment of retinal and choroidal blood flow is also a window to evaluate systemic diseases that affect microvasculature. Quantification and qualification of the blood flow in the retina and choroid help us understand pathophysiology, stratify disease risk, and monitor disease progression in these disorders. Multiple methods are used by researchers for assessment of blood flow, but a gold standard is lacking. We review commonly used methods, both invasive and noninvasive, for evaluation of blood flow, including intravital microscopy, laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler flowmetry, laser interferometry, confocal scanning laser Doppler flowmetry, laser speckle flowgraphy, Doppler optical coherence tomography, blue-field entoptic simulation, retinal vessel caliber assessment, optical coherence tomography angiography, retinal function imaging, color Doppler imaging, and scanning laser ophthalmoscope angiogram. As technology evolves, better evaluation of blood flow in various ocular and systemic diseases will likely bring new perspectives into clinical practice and translate to better diagnosis and treatment.

P. insidiosum keratitis needs to be considered in the differential diagnosis of severe fungal keratitis. It can be identified using the zoospore formation method and confirmed by ITS DNA sequencing. Lack of response to currently used antifungal drugs calls for evaluation of newer drugs for medical therapy and consideration for early penetrating keratoplasty.