This article illustrates the complexities of gender-related development through an analysis of individual indicators covering issues of women’s work, education, health, survival, safety and participation in public/private decision-making. State level comparisons based on selected individual gender-related indicators reveal divergent patterns of development, highlighting the problems that complexity and non-linearity pose for measuring gender development. In the absence of unilinear patterns of gender development across Indian states, the significance of non-composite indicators and their importance for problem identification and effective intervention is highlighted.

This paper focuses on the gender dimensions of poverty with analysis of rural and urban area specific variations. What are the implications of poverty on women's lives? Is the impact of poverty on women distinct? In what ways are poor women more vulnerable? So far, the focus has been on rural poverty, with more recent shifts towards the concerns of urban poor. Is urban poverty a spillover of rural poor through migration? What are the characteristic features of urban poverty and how do they differ from rural poverty, especially in terms of the implications for women's lives. Does the association of female headed households with poverty hold true in the Indian context? How different are the characteristics of female heads in rural and urban areas and what are its implications on poverty among such households? This is examined through an analysis of female headed households over time across rural-urban areas in terms of their marital status, educational levels and employment status. Gender based deprivations and discriminations are additions to poverty related vulnerabilities. The twin and combined impact of gender and poverty are examined through a detailed account of rural-urban poor women's demographic, educational and employment statuses. The differences among men and women across the consumption expenditure quintiles in terms of the nature of employment is compared to view both gender and poverty elements.

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A rise in female work participation in the urban sector creates a vacancy for care work at the household level and triggers a second round of job creation for females. In order to explore whether this process gives rise to decent employment for the female domestic workers (FDWs), a primary survey was conducted among domestic workers in the cities of Delhi, Noida, Kolkata and Asansol. The workers surveyed are, by and large, in low-wage, precarious employment, without social security and have an exhausting routine of work inside and outside the home. Apart from the lack of job security, sickness and disease also add to the uncertainty. Given the double burden of income-earning work and own domestic work, the FDW is crucially dependent on her health and strength, and often incurs health-related expenditure. But they contribute to their household income and have some autonomy in household decision-making. The informal working conditions for these workers, the need for social security and their low wage levels are all areas that need serious attention from policy-makers. Health insurance and pension plans would benefit the domestic workers, given that their work involves a requirement for robust health and the strength that youth brings with it.

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