The research and evaluation evidence is mounting: out-of-school-time (OST) programs can keep young people safe, support working families, and improve academic achievement and social development. Over 6 million children are enrolled in after-school programs nationwide, but an estimated 14.3 million children still care for themselves in the nonschool hours. Because of this discrepancy, OST stakeholders need information about how to maximize participation in OST programs. The Harvard Family Research Project (HRFP) has developed a conceptual model, based on scholarly theory, empirical research, and knowledge gained from providers, that describes the characteristics that predict participation in OST programs as well as the potential benefits of that participation. In the center of the model, participation is conceived as a three-part construct of enrollment, attendance, and engagement. This equation serves as the basis for framing this issue of New Directions for Youth Development. The chapter provides an overview of why participation in OST programs matters for young people, describes some of the barriers and challenges to youth participation, teases out more precise definitions of participation, and presents HFRP's conceptual model of participation. It focuses on the participation equation and concludes by highlighting some overarching themes that recur throughout the issue and that have an impact on future directions for research and evaluation.

Participation in structured out-of-school time (OST) activities is of growing interest to families, youth practitioners, and policymakers. OST activities benefit youth socially, emotionally, and academically, especially at-risk youth. Yet, little research has explored the characteristics of youth participants. This study examines whether demographic differences exist merely in getting youth "in the door" of activities, or whether differences persist when examining the number of activities and the amount of time youth spend in activities once they are there. Results from two nationally representative datasets showed that disadvantaged youth were less likely to participate in a variety of activities than their peers, and participated in fewer numbers of activities. Among youth who did participate, Blacks and Hispanics participated less frequently in some activities, although Blacks participated more frequently in community-based youth programs. Implications for recruitment and retention are discussed, including the need for activity leaders to enhance efforts to attract and sustain disadvantaged and ethnic minority youth.

Many out-of-school-time (OST) practitioners seek ways to maximize enrollment, enhance frequency of participation, and ensure retention in OST programs, so that the multiple potential benefits of these programs are realized. Three critical areas of program quality are important underpinnings for success in recruitment and retention of youth in OST programs: a sense of safety and community; committed program staff; and challenging, age-appropriate, and fun activities. In addition, a review of over sixty OST evaluations reveals five promising recruitment strategies to boost enrollment: (1) matching the program to participants' needs (offering activities not readily available elsewhere or offering flexible schedules), (2) demonstrating the importance of participation to young people and their families, (3) reaching out directly to youth and their families in their homes and communities, (4) recruiting in peer circles, and (5) making a special effort to recruit at-risk youth. Finally, the evaluation literature points to five promising strategies to enhance regular participation and longterm program retention: (1) sending a clear message that regular attendance is important; (2) setting realistic goals to promote regular attendance, especially as youth grow older; (3) finding a balance among academic and other activities; (4) using incentives; and (5) keeping teens involved with opportunities for leadership, community service, and paid employment.

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