In our series, primary pulmonary carcinoid tumors presenting as peripheral SPNs were more common than central endobronchial lesions in contrast to the published literature. The CT features of peripheral carcinoid tumors presenting as SPNs that suggest the diagnosis include lobulated nodules of high attenuation on contrast-enhanced CT; nodules that densely enhance with contrast administration; the presence of calcification; subsegmental airway involvement on thin-section analysis; and nodules associated with distal hyperlucency, bronchiectasis, or atelectasis.

Fluoroscopy operators and staff can greatly reduce their radiation exposure by wearing properly fitted protective garments, positioning protective devices to block scatter radiation, and adhering to good radiation practices. By understanding the essentials of radiation physics, protective equipment, and the features of each imaging system, operators and staff can capitalize on opportunities for radiation protection while minimizing ergonomic strain. Practicing and promoting a culture of radiation safety can help fluoroscopy operators and staff enjoy long, productive careers helping patients.

Although the evidence overwhelmingly shows that exposure to higher doses of radiation carries a risk of cancer and tissue reactions, the risks of chronic exposure to low-level radiation are less clear. Many studies examining occupational exposure to radiation fail to show an increased risk of stochastic effects of radiation, but the positive results raise concern that the studies are underpowered to consistently detect the small risk. The lack of information in these studies about radiation doses and adherence to radiation protection further confound their interpretation. Large prospective studies of populations with occupational exposure to low-level radiation might clarify this issue. More clearly established are the risks of radiation to the fetus and the risk of cataracts in interventional cardiologists and interventional radiologists. Interventionalists can mitigate these risks by following established radiation safety practices.