Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) have now emerged as a powerful new class of small-molecule therapeutics acting through the regulation of the acetylation states of histone proteins (a form of epigenetic modulation) and other non-histone protein targets. Over 490 clinical trials have been initiated in the last 10 years, culminating in the approval of two structurally distinct HDACis – SAHA (vorinostat, Zolinza™) and FK228 (romidepsin, Istodax™). However, the current HDACis have serious limitations, including ineffectively low concentrations in solid tumors and cardiac toxicity, which is hindering their progress in the clinic. Herein, we review the primary paradigms being pursued to overcome these hindrances, including HDAC isoform selectivity, localized administration, and targeting cap groups to achieve selective tissue and cell type distribution.

The breast cancer treatment drug tamoxifen has been widely administered for more than three decades. This small molecule competes with 17β-estradiol for binding to estrogen receptor, a hormone receptor upregulated in a majority of breast cancers, subsequently initiating programmed cell death. We have synthesized a thiol--PEGylated tamoxifen derivative that can be used to selectively target and deliver plasmonic gold nanoparticles to estrogen receptor positive breast cancer cells with up to 2.7-fold enhanced drug potency in vitro. Optical microscopy/spectroscopy, time-dependent dose-response data, and estrogen competition studies indicate that augmented activity is due to increased rates of intracellular tamoxifen transport by nanoparticle endocytosis, rather than by passive diffusion of the free drug. Both ligand- and receptor- dependent intracellular delivery of gold nanoparticles suggest that plasma membrane localized estrogen receptor alpha may facilitate selective uptake/retention of this and other therapeutic nanoparticle conjugates. Combined targeting selectivity and enhanced potency provides opportunities for both multimodal endocrine treatment strategies and adjunctive laser photothermal therapy.

Small molecules bearing hydroxamic acid as the zinc binding group (ZBG) have been the most effective histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) to date. However, concerns about the pharmacokinetic liabilities of the hydroxamic acid moiety have stimulated research efforts aimed at finding alternative non-hydroxamate ZBGs. We have identified 3-hydroxypyridin-2-thione (3-HPT) as a novel ZBG that is compatible with HDAC inhibition. 3-HPT inhibits HDAC 6 and HDAC 8 with an IC50 of 681 nM and 3675 nM respectively. Remarkably, 3-HPT gives no inhibition of HDAC 1. Subsequent optimization led to several novel 3HPT-based HDACi that are selective for HDAC 6 and HDAC 8. Furthermore, a subset of these inhibitors induces apoptosis in various cancer cell lines.

We have previously identified 3-hydroxypyridin-2-thione (3HPT) as a novel zinc binding group for histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition. Early structure activity relationship (SAR) studies led to various small molecules possessing selective inhibitory activity against HDAC6 or HDAC8 but are devoid of HDAC1 inhibition. To further delineate the depth of the SAR of 3HPT-derived HDAC inhibitors (HDACi), we have extended the SAR studies to include the linker region and the surface recognition group to optimize the HDAC inhibition. The current efforts resulted in the identification of two lead compounds 10d and 14e with potent HDAC6 and HDAC8 activities, but that are inactive against HDAC1. These new HDACi possess anti-cancer activities against various cancer cell lines including Jurkat J-γ1 against which SAHA and the previously disclosed 3HPT-derived HDACi were inactive.

Uncontrolled inflammation is a salient factor in multiple chronic inflammatory diseases and cancers. In this review, we provided an in-depth analysis of the relationships and distinctions between uncontrolled inflammation, fibrosis and cancers, while emphasizing the challenges and opportunities of developing novel therapies for the treatment and/or management of these diseases. We described how drug delivery systems, combination therapy and the integration of tissue-targeted and/or pathways selective strategies could overcome the challenges of current agents for managing and/or treating chronic inflammatory diseases and cancers. We also recognized the value of the re-evaluation of the disease-specific roles of multiple pathways implicated in the pathophysiology of chronic inflammatory diseases and cancers—as well as the application of data from single-cell RNA sequencing in the success of future drug discovery endeavors.