Studying urban areas using remote sensing imagery has become a challenge, both visually and digitally. Supervised classification, one of the digital classification approaches to differentiate between built-up and non-built-up area, used to be leading in digital studies of urban area. Then the next generation uses index transformation for automatic urban data extraction. The extraction of urban built-up land can be automatically done with NDBI although it has one limitation on separating built-up land and bare land. The previous studies provide opportunities for further research to increase the accuracy of the extraction, particularly using index transformation. This study aims to obtain the maximum accuracy of the extraction by merging several indices including NDBI, NDVI, MNDWI, NDWI, and SAVI. The merging of the indices is using four stages: merging of two indices, three indices, four indexes and five indices. Several operations were experimented to merge the indices, either by addition, subtraction, or multiplication. The results show that merging NDBI and MNDWI produce the highest accuracy of 90.30% either by multiplication (overlay) or reduction. Application of SAVI, NDBI, and NDWI also gives a good effect for extracting urban built-up areas and has 85.72% mapping accuracy.

Impervious surface is one of the major land cover types of urban and suburban environment. Conversion of rural landscapes and vegetation area to urban and suburban land use is directly related to the increase of the impervious surface area. The impervious surface expansion is straight-lined with decreasing green spaces in urban areas. Impervious surface is one of indicator for detecting urban heat islands. This study compares various indices for mapping impervious surfaces using Landsat 8 OLI imagery by optimizing the different spectral characteristics of Landsat 8 OLI imagery. The research objectives are (1) to apply various indices for impervious surface mapping and (2) identifies impervious surfaces in urban areas based on multiple indices and provide recommendations and find the best index for mapping impervious surface in urban areas. In addition to utilizing the index, land use supervised classification method, maximum likelihood classification used for extracting built-up, and non-built-up areas. Accuracy assessment of this research used field data collection as primary data for calculating kappa coefficient, producer accuracy, and user accuracy. The study can also be extended to find the land surface temperature and correlate the impervious surface extraction data with urban heat islands.

Lahan terbangun di perkotaan dan area vegetasi menjadi hal yang sangat menarik untuk dikaji. Apalagi dinamika penggunaan lahan di perkotaan yang sangat cepat berubah. Berbagai metode dikembangkan untuk ekstraksi lahan terbangun di perkotaan, mulai dari klasifikasi multispektral, object based approach, hingga penelitian berbasis indeks. NDBI menjadi salah satu indeks pioner untuk ekstraksi lahan terbangun perkotaan dengan menggunakan saluran SWIR. Pengembangan indeks lahan terbangun ini masih perlu dikembangan untuk citra yang tidak mempunyai panjang gelombang SWIR. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah merumuskan kombinasi saluran terbaik dalam ekstraksi lahan terbangun dan area vegetasi serta menghitung kepadatan bangunan dan kerapatan vegetasi berbasis indeks. Penelitian ini menggunakan Citra Worldview-2 yang diperoleh dari Digital Globe Foundation untuk ekstraksi lahan terbangun dan kerapatan vegetasi. Normalized difference index digunakan sebagai formula dalam pembuatan indeks. Pemanfaatan semua saluran spektral dalam citra Worldview-2 digunakan untuk ekstraksi lahan terbangun dan kepadatan bangunan di perkotaan dengan PCA sebagai metode untuk penggabungan delapan saluran dalam Worldview-2. Saluran NIR 1 dan NIR 2 yang digabungkan dengan Saluran Merah menjadi pilihan untuk ekstraksi vegetasi. Proses trial dan error mewarnai pemilihan kombinasi saluran yang digunakan dan treshold yang digunakan untuk analisis biner dalam membedakan lahan terbangun dan non lahan terbangun serta area vegetasi dan area non vegetasi. Pemanfaatan unique identification (UID) digunakan untuk pembuatan grid berbasis raster dalam perhitungan kepadatan bangunan dan kerapatan vegetasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa indeks yang dibangun dengan PC2 dan NIR 1 serta PC2 dan NIR 2 mempunyai akurasi tinggi yaitu 94,43% untuk bangunan dan kombinasi indeks dari NIR1_Red mempunyai akurasi optimal yaitu 99,51% dan NIR2_Red mempunyai akurasi 92,87 untuk ekstraksi data vegetasi.  Urban phenomenon becomes a very interesting thing to be studied. The urban land use, land conversion, urban green space, are rapidly changing. Various methods were developed for urban built-up data extraction, such as multispectral classification, object-based approach, and index-based research. NDBI became one of pioneer indices for urban-built urban land extraction using SWIR band. The development of this built-up index is still required for images that do not have SWIR wavelengths. The study objectives were to select the best methods for built-up land and vegetation extraction and to calculate building density and index-based vegetation density. Worldview-2 image obtained from Digital Globe Foundation tested for built-up land data extracting and vegetation density analyzing. Normalized difference index formula is applied for combining and setting built-up land and vegetation indexes. Merger of Worldview-2 spectral imagery were using PCA method for extracting built-up land and calculating building density. Combining eight bands into eight new images that have different information from original images was done by PCA method.  NIR 1, NIR2, and Red bands are the perfect choice for vegetation extraction because near infrared characteristics have high reflections on vegetation. Selection of band combinations and selection of threshold values through trial and error processes to perceive the best index combinations and reasonable threshold values. Binary analysis is particularly useful for separating the built-up and non-built-up areas as well as vegetation and non-vegetation. The Unique identification (UID) technique used in estimating built-up and vegetation density from precisely classified images provided better and accurate assessment of built-up and vegetation density.  The results show that the built-up index involving PC2_NIR 1 and PC2_NIR 2 for the urban built land research achieved an optimal accuracy of 94, 43%. The best accuracy for vegetation data extraction was obtained from the combined NIR1_Red index with 99,51% and NIR2_Red values with an overall accuracy of 92,87%.

The phenomenon of urban ecology is very comprehensive, for example, rapid land-use changes, decrease in vegetation cover, dynamic urban climate, high population density, and lack of urban green space. Temporal resolution and spatial resolution of remote sensing data are fundamental requirements for spatial heterogeneity research. Remote sensing data is very effective and efficient for measuring, mapping, monitoring, and modeling spatial heterogeneity in urban areas. The advantage of remote sensing data is that it can be processed by visual and digital analysis, index transformation, image enhancement, and digital classification. Therefore, various information related to the quality of urban ecology can be processed quickly and accurately. This study integrates urban ecological, environmental data such as vegetation, built-up land, climate, and soil moisture based on spectral image response. The combination of various indices obtained from spatial data, thematic data, and spatial heterogeneity analysis can provide information related to urban ecological status. The results of this study can measure the pressure of environment caused by human activities such as urbanization, vegetation cover and agriculture land decreases, and urban micro-climate phenomenon. Using the same data source indicators, this method is comparable at different spatiotemporal scales and can avoid the variations or errors in weight definitions caused by individual characteristics. Land use changes can be seen from the results of the ecological index. Change is influenced by human behavior in the environment. In 2002, the ecological index illustrated that regions with low ecology still spread. Whereas in 2017, good and bad ecological indices are clustered.

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