No abstract

As a leading cause of bacterial dysentery, Shigella represents a significant threat to public health and food safety. Related, but often overlooked, enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) can also cause dysentery. Current typing methods have limited ability to identify and differentiate between these pathogens despite the need for rapid and accurate identification of pathogens for clinical treatment and outbreak response. We present a comprehensive phylogeny of Shigella and EIEC using whole genome sequencing of 169 samples, constituting unparalleled strain diversity, and observe a lack of monophyly between Shigella and EIEC and among Shigella taxonomic groups. The evolutionary relationships in the phylogeny are supported by analyses of population structure and hierarchical clustering patterns of translated gene homolog abundance. Lastly, we identified a panel of 254 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers specific to each phylogenetic cluster for more accurate identification of Shigella and EIEC. Our findings show that Shigella and EIEC are not distinct evolutionary groups within the E. coli genus and, thus, EIEC as a group is not the ancestor to Shigella. The multiple analyses presented provide evidence for reconsidering the taxonomic placement of Shigella. The SNP markers offer more discriminatory power to molecular epidemiological typing methods involving these bacterial pathogens.

To facilitate genetic investigations in the obligate intracellular pathogens Chlamydia, the ability to construct variants by homologous recombination was investigated in C. psittaci 6BC. The single rRNA operon was targeted with a synthetic 16S rRNA allele, harboring three nucleotide substitutions over 398 bp, which imparts resistance to kasugamycin (Ksm) and spectinomycin (Spc) and causes loss of one HpaI restriction site. A fourth, silent mutation was introduced 654 bp downstream in the beginning of the 23S rRNA gene. C. psittaci 6BC infectious particles were electroporated with various concentrations of circular or linearized plasmids containing different lengths of the rRNA region homologous to the chromosomal copy except for the four nucleotide substitutions. Ksm and Spc were added 18 h after inoculation onto confluent cell monolayers in the plaque assay. Resistant plaques were picked and expanded with selection 10 days later before collecting DNA for analysis by PCR, restriction mapping, sequencing, or Southern. Spontaneous resistance to Ksm and Spc was never observed in mock electroporated bacteria (frequency <6.2 ؋ 10 ؊9 ). Conversely, double resistance and replacement of the 16S rRNA gene were observed when C. psittaci was electroporated with the recombination substrates. Highest efficiency was obtained with 10 g of circular vector prepared in a DNA methylase-deficient Escherichia coli (1.9 ؎ 1.1 ؋ 10 ؊6 , n ‫؍‬ 7). Coinheritance of the silent 23S rRNA mutation was seen in 46 of 67 recombinants analyzed, illustrating DNA exchange of up to 1,052 bp in length. These findings provide the first step toward genetic manipulation of Chlamydia.recombination ͉ selection ͉ plaque assay