The present study addressed two specific questions:(1) Are there differences in parenting behaviors between anxious and non-anxious mothers? and (2) Are parenting behaviors within these two groups associated with adverse outcomes in children (i.e., internalizing and externalizing symptoms)? The above questions were examined concurrently (when children were in first grade) and at a six-year follow-up among a predominately African American community-based high-risk sample. Twenty-five anxious and matched non-anxious (N = 50) mothers were videotaped with their children (mean age 5.8 years) engaging in a challenging task. Blind raters coded parent behaviors. Parents and children completed measures of anxiety and/or externalizing symptoms at both time points. Contrary to expectations, results indicated no group differences in parenting behaviors in the first grade and no relation be-Golda S. Ginsburg, PhD, Rachel L. Grover, PhD, and Nick Ialongo, PhD, are affiliated with Johns Hopkins University. Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 14:35 26 November 2014tween parenting behaviors and concurrent levels of anxiety or externalizing symptoms. At the six-year follow-up, however, higher levels of criticism and lower levels of granting of autonomy were significantly related to higher anxiety (but not externalizing) symptoms in children of anxious parents. Findings are discussed in the context of existing developmental models of childhood anxiety and suggest that the interaction of parental anxiety and parenting behavior may increase children's risk for anxiety disorders.

This study examined the relation between type of parent-child interaction task and parenting behaviors among a predominantly African American community-based sample. Twenty-five anxious and matched nonanxious (N = 50) mothers were videotaped with their children (Mage = 5.8 years) engaging in both a structured and unstructured task. Blind raters coded 3 parent behaviors hypothesized to play a role in the development of child anxiety: overcontrol, anxious behavior, and criticism. Results indicated that higher levels of overcontrol, anxious behavior, and criticism were found in the structured compared to unstructured task. Levels of criticism, among anxious mothers only, were significantly correlated across tasks. Results suggest that situation specific aspects of parent-child interaction tasks may influence parenting behaviors. These findings help explain variations in observational research in the anxiety literature and highlight the need for careful selection ofparent-child tasks in future research.Anxiety disorders have been found to run in families, and both biological and environmental factors have been identified as potential mechanisms of transmission (e.g., Lieb et al., 2000)

This study examined the concurrent and long-term psychosocial outcomes associated with anxiety symptoms among a community sample of predominately low-income African Americans (N = 149; 72 females). We classified first graders as high or low anxious using child, parent, and teacher reports. Academic, social, and psychological outcomes were assessed in the first and eighth grades. Logistic regressions with concurrent data revealed that highly anxious children were significantly more likely to score lower on measures of academic achievement and peer acceptance, but higher on measures of depression and aggression compared to their low-anxious peers. Longitudinal analyses revealed that high-anxious first graders, compared to their lowanxious peers, scored significantly lower on measures of academic achievement, aggression, and peer acceptance; and higher on measures of anxiety and depression in the eighth grade. Importantly, outcomes varied depending on informant. Findings suggest that, similar to European American youth, early-onset anxious symptoms in African American children are associated with both concurrent and long-term academic, social, and psychological difficulties.

Parental psychological control has been found to relate to the development of childhood anxiety; however, this relation has not been thoroughly examined. The purpose of this study was to understand the nature of the relation between parental psychological control and anxiety symptoms in children, as well as to understand whether this relation is mediated by children's perceived control. Questionnaires were administered to children ages 8-11. Results indicated a significant relation between parental psychological control and child anxiety symptoms. Results further indicated that this relation was fully mediated by children's perceptions of how much control they feel they have over events in their lives. These findings suggest that although parental psychological control and a child's perceived control both contribute to the development of anxiety, it is possible that parental psychological control contributes to the development of anxiety by affecting a child's perception of control.

The present study examined the concurrent and prospective relation between a select number of potential predictors and symptoms of anxiety among a high-risk community sample of 149 predominately African American children. Parent and child reports of anxiety were assessed in the first and seventh grade. Six domains of childhood risk factors (i.e., Loss-Death, Loss-Separation, Social Adversity, Negative Family Environment, Academic Difficulties, and Peer Rejection) were assessed using multiple informants in the first grade. Results indicated that children who experienced a more negative family environment, had a greater number of losses and deaths, and experienced academic failures in the first grade exhibited higher levels of anxiety (concurrently and/or at the six year follow-up). Findings provide empirical support to etiological models that posit both parental/familial and environmental factors contribute to the development of heightened anxiety in children. Keywords risk factors; child anxiety; African AmericanAnxiety disorders are among the most common childhood psychiatric disorders, with prevalence rates ranging between 3% and 15%. 1 Children with anxiety disorders experience significant impairment in their academic, familial, and social functioning. For instance, many anxious children have difficulty attending and performing in school, struggle with making and maintaining friendships, have high levels of family conflict, and experience significant personal distress (e.g., see . In light of the high prevalence of anxiety disorders and the short-and long-term impairment they confer, attempts to identify early risk factors or predictors of anxiety are needed. Identifying predictors of psychopathology is critical for informing etiological models, facilitating early identification, and developing preventive interventions. 5 The focus of the present study was to address this issue by examining a broad range of theorized predictors of anxiety over a seven-year period, capitalizing on an existing community-based longitudinal data set from the Baltimore Prevention Research Center at Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health.Developmental models of anxiety disorders in children served as a guide for identifying potential predictors. These models generally stress the reciprocal relation between a number of child (e.g., behavioral inhibition and avoidance, distorted thinking), parental/familial (e.g., psychopathology, family environment, parenting behaviors), and environmental NIH Public Access Author ManuscriptChild Psychiatry Hum Dev. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 June 13. factors (e.g., poverty, traumatic experiences). [6][7][8][9] Utilizing primarily concurrent designs, studies attempting to empirically validate theorized risk factors have identified several familial and environmental correlates of anxiety (e.g., see Refs. 10 and 11). Although concurrent studies have been informative, longitudinal studies provide information concerning trajectories of development, suggest direc...