With the pressing need for accountability in higher education, standardized outcomes assessments have been widely used to evaluate learning and inform policy. However, the critical question on how scores are influenced by students’ motivation has been insufficiently addressed. Using random assignment, we administered a multiple-choice test and an essay across three motivational conditions. Students’ self-report motivation was also collected. Motivation significantly predicted test scores. A substantial performance gap emerged between students in different motivational conditions (effect size as large as .68). Depending on the test format and condition, conclusions about college learning gain (i.e., value added) varied dramatically from substantial gain (d = 0.72) to negative gain (d = −0.23). The findings have significant implications for higher education stakeholders at many levels.

We investigated whether bilinguals’ integration of a code-switch during real-time comprehension, which involves resolving among conflicting linguistic representations, modulates the deployment of cognitive-control mechanisms. In the current experiment, Spanish-English bilinguals (N = 48) completed a cross-task conflict-adaptation paradigm that tested whether reading code-switched sentences triggers cognitive-control engagement that immediately influences performance on an ensuing Flanker trial. We observed that, while incrementally processing sentences, detecting a code-switch (as opposed to reading sentences that did not contain a code-switch) assisted subsequent conflict resolution. Such temporal interdependence between confronting cross-linguistic conflict and ensuing adjustments in behavior indicates that integrating a code-switch during online comprehension may recruit domain-general cognitive-control procedures. We propose that such control mechanisms mobilize to resolve among competing representations that arise across languages during real-time parsing of code-switched input. Overall, the findings provide novel insight into what language-processing demands of bilingualism regulate cognitive-control performance moment by moment.

One fundamental way to determine the validity of standardized English‐language test scores is to investigate the extent to which they reflect anticipated learning effects in different English‐language programs. In this study, we investigated the extent to which the TOEFL iBT® practice test reflects the learning effects of students at intensive English programs in the United States and China, as well as extracurricular English‐learning activities that may be associated with the expected learning effects. A total of 607 students at the high school level or beyond participated in the United States and China, including 111 students who took 2 forms of the practice test under a pretest and posttest design. The results showed moderate to substantial levels of improvement on each of the TOEFL iBT sections, with different score gain patterns for students in the United States and China. We concluded that students who study at English programs similar to those included in this study can improve their English‐language proficiency levels at least moderately over 6 months or longer, as indicated by changes in their scores on the TOEFL iBT practice test. This improvement is consistent with an interpretation of TOEFL iBT scores as indicators of English‐language proficiency.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the ways in which universities use the GRE® General Test scores to award merit‐based fellowships to first‐year graduate students in doctoral programs. While GRE use in fellowship award decisions is a common practice, there is very little validity evidence to support its use in this context. This exploratory qualitative study uses an argument‐based validity approach as a conceptual framework to document GRE use systematically in award decisions. The findings from this study indicate that universities use merit‐based fellowships to recruit the best and the brightest graduate students. The GRE is used as part of the nominee selection process in departments and is also used in the final selection process by university‐wide committees. The GRE scores are primarily used to infer whether students have the baseline knowledge and skills needed to succeed in graduate school. These academic competencies were one of the characteristics the decision makers identified as required for successful doctoral students. The participants stated that the factors for success in graduate school are nebulous; however, the students with high GRE scores and other noteworthy supporting materials are expected to perform strongly in graduate school and, therefore, are worthy of the investment of a merit‐based fellowship.

This white paper provides an overview of the issues that affect the quality and equity of education in grades K-16 for Latino students in the United States. This paper is organized chronologically to reflect the typical educational timeline for students in the United States, and we focused on several key transition points in the educational timeline: from elementary school to middle school, from middle school to high school, from high school to college, and from a two-year college to a four-year college. Each of these transition points can pose challenges for every student, but in this paper, we focused specifically on the unique challenges that Latino students encounter. It is our hope that this paper will provide an impetus to action and will serve as a guide for future directions for collective research efforts on the critical issues regarding the education of Latino students in the 21st century.Key words: Latino students; Hispanic students; academic achievement; educational transitions; student demographics ii Executive SummaryToday, the state of education for Latino students in the United States is at a crisis point.The loss of human and social capital that results from the underachievement of Latino students is a significant barrier for our country in meeting the demand for an educated and talented workforce to compete globally in the 21st century. On an individual level, when Latino students are not provided with the same opportunity to receive a world-class education as other students, they are denied the chance to fully realize their potential as students, workers, and citizens. The present conditions of education for Latino students will not improve unless concerted efforts are made to effect change from educators, politicians, policy makers, researchers, and parents. ETS, as the world's leading assessment organization, should play a central role in advancing the quality and equity of education for Latino students in the United States through our work in assessment, research, and outreach. This goal is the very embodiment of our corporate mission to advance quality and equity in education for all people worldwide.As a step toward meeting this goal, this white paper was commissioned by ETS. It was written to provide an overview of the issues that affect the quality and equity of education in grades K-16 for Latino students in the United States. The paper is organized chronologically to reflect the typical educational timeline for students in the United States. We focused on several key transition points in the educational timeline: from elementary school to middle school, from middle school to high school, from high school to college, and from a two-year college to a fouryear college. Each of these transition points can pose challenges for every student, but in this paper, we focused specifically on the unique challenges that Latino students encounter.To preview the ideas and topics in the white paper, we highlight three key findings on the current status of education for Latino students in Am...