Siglecs (Sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-type lectins) are a I-type lectin that typically binds sialic acid. Siglecs are predominantly expressed in immune cells and generate activating or inhibitory signals. They are also shown to be expressed on the surface of cells in the nervous system and have been shown to play central roles in neuroinflammation. There has been a plethora of reviews outlining the studies pertaining to Siglecs in immune cells. However, this review aims to compile the articles on the role of Siglecs in brain function and neurological disorders. In humans, the most abundant Siglecs are CD33 (Siglec-3), Siglec-4 (myelin-associated glycoprotein/MAG), and Siglec-11, Whereas in mice the most abundant are Siglec-1 (sialoadhesin), Siglec-2 (CD22), Siglec-E, Siglec-F, and Siglec-H. This review is divided into three parts. Firstly, we discuss the general biological aspects of Siglecs that are expressed in nervous tissue. Secondly, we discuss about the role of Siglecs in brain function and molecular mechanism for their function. Finally, we collate the available information on Siglecs and neurological disorders. It is intriguing to study this family of proteins in neurological disorders because they carry immunoinhibitory and immunoactivating motifs that can be vital in neuroinflammation.

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Heinz L€ aubli and Kunio Kawanishi have contributed equally.

Mitochondria are unique organelles carrying their own genetic material, independent from that in the nucleus. This review will discuss the nature of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and its levels in the cell, which are the key elements to consider when trying to achieve molecular identification in ancient and degraded samples. mtDNA sequence analysis has been appropriately validated and is a consistent molecular target for the examination of biological evidence encountered in forensic cases—and profiling, in certain conditions—especially for burnt bodies and degraded samples of all types. Exceptional cases and samples will be discussed in this review, such as mtDNA from leather in Beethoven’s grand piano, mtDNA in mummies, and solving famous historical criminal cases. In addition, this review will be discussing the use of ancient mtDNA to understand past human diet, to trace historical civilizations and ancient trade routes, and to uncover geographical domestication origins and lineage relationships. In each topic, we will present the power of mtDNA and how, in many cases, no nuclear DNA was left, leaving mitochondrial DNA analysis as a powerful alternative. Exploring this powerful tool further will be extremely useful to modern science and researchers, due to its capabilities in providing us with previously unattainable knowledge.