The spike (S) and hemagglutinin/esterase (HE) of bovine coronavirus (BCV) are the two envelope proteins that recognize the same receptor-determinant of 9-O-acetylneuraminic acid on host cells. However, the precise and relative roles of the two proteins in BCV infectivity remain elusive. To unequivocally determine their roles in viral cytopathogenicity, we developed a system in which phenotypically chimeric viruses were generated by infecting a closely related mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) in cells that stably express an individual BCV protein (S or HE). The chimeric viruses were then used to infect human rectal tumor (HRT)-18 cells that are permissive to BCV but are nonsusceptible to MHV. Using this approach, we found that the chimeric virus containing the BCV S protein on the virion surface entered and replicated in HRT-18 cells; this was specifically blocked by prior treatment of the virus with a neutralizing antibody specific to the BCV S protein, indicating that the BCV S protein is responsible for initiating chimeric virus infection. In contrast, chimeric viruses that contain biologically active and functional BCV HE protein on the surface failed to enter HRT-18 cells, indicating that the BCV HE protein alone is not sufficient for BCV infection. Taken together, these results demonstrate that the S protein but not the HE protein of BCV is necessary and sufficient for infection of the chimeric viruses in HRT-18 cells, suggesting that BCV likely uses the S protein as a primary vehicle to infect permissive cells.

The H2020 ReDSHIFT project aims at finding passive means to mitigate the proliferation of space debris. This goal is pursued by a twofold research activity based on theoretical astrodynamics, computer simulations and the analysis of legal aspects of space debris, coupled with an experimental activity on advanced additive manufacturing (3D printing) applied to the production of a novel small satellite. Several different aspects related to the design and production of a debris compliant spacecraft are treated, including shielding, area augmentation devices for deorbiting (solar and drag sails) and design for demise. A strong testing activity, mainly based on design for demise wind tunnel experiments and hypervelocity impacts is performed as well. The main results obtained so far in the project are outlined.

The growth of orbital space debris is both a consequence of and a potential hindrance to space activities. The risks posed by space debris propagation in the most used orbital regions highlight the need to adequately address the challenges posed to the sustainability in outer space. The preservation of the access to and usability of outer space in the long-term requires that action is taken which has to be the result of both mitigation and remediation measures for existing and future space missions. As the enforcement of such technical measures will depend on adequate regulation, they need to be approached also from a legal perspective. The deficiencies in law for space debris remediation mechanisms originate from the fact that although technical concepts have been developed, the legal framework for space activities does not impose any legal obligations for debris removal and on-orbit servicing. Nevertheless, an overview of the relevant legal framework shows that there is a legal basis for the protection of the outer space environment which can, as has already been the case with space debris mitigation guidelines, be substantiated in more concrete terms by the formulation of voluntary, non-binding instruments and included in national legislation.

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