Existing theories to explain socio-cultural developments in the highly interconnected Roman world have seen significant developments over the past 20 years. But are we any closer in answering three major questions: who, how, and why? In other words, we need a better understanding of the complexity of the mechanisms of social agency and multiple motivational forces that instigate socio-cultural change. Many models appear to underestimate the role of sub-elite agents in instigating change, nor do they take into account simultaneous, often contradictory societal, cultural, religious and economic developments. We are therefore advocating a bottomup approach whereby multiple experiences, expectations, norms and social pressures shaped the individual social agents in diverse geographical settings in this emerging 'global world'. To evaluate the potential repercussions of an individual's actions and decisions, we must use modern sociological approaches that help us to understand, for example, group dynamics.
Literacy is conventionally defined as the ability to read and write. There are various forms of literacy depending on people's membership in a particular culture. We need to distinguish between active and passive literacy: starting with the ability to decipher or write simple texts, to the creative composition of complex texts with the complex syntax which may also imply forms of critical thinking and a reflection of one's self. Literacy may depend on people's status, their profession, gender, and age‐group, and their access to education.
Cisalpine Gaul is a region of North Italy surrounded by the Alps in the north and west, the Adria in the east, and Luca in the south; in the first century BCE , the river Rubicon separated Cisalpine Gaul from the rest of Italy (Plut. Caes . 20; 32; Plin. HN 3.20).
L’objectif de cet article est de remettre en question le modèle de la religion poliade qui présente une image artificielle, statique et déformée des conditions religieuses dans l’Occident romain. L’expérience et l’identité religieuses de l’individu vont au-delà des cultes civiques, car il faut tenir compte du grand choix de cultes disponibles sous le haut Empire : en comparaison avec la fin de l’âge du Fer, le haut Empire se caractérise par une diversité de cultes et de pratiques cultuelles. Cette diversité, que l’on constate dans chaque région et dans chaque cité, résulte de choix individuels en ce qui concerne les divinités, les théonymes, les pratiques cultuelles, l’architecture, la sculpture, l’iconographie, etc. Les cultes tirent à la fois leur substance de traditions grécoromaine, gréco-orientale et indigène : cette pluralité est caractéristique des cultes de Gaule Narbonnaise. Bien que l’expression et l’architecture soient de tradition gréco-romaine, la Romanitas ne semble pas jouer un rôle important dans les expressions religieuses en Gaule méridionale. Finalement, il ne faut pas donner une importance excessive au modèle romain dans l’étude des religions de l’Occident : la création d’une municipalité romaine n’est qu’un pas dans l’évolution des cultes locaux, notamment en Gaule méridionale, où les cultes ont déjà connu des transformations profondes avant la conquête romaine.
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