Background and objective. Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs) reduce gastric acid production and they are indicated for myriad gastrointestinal conditions. Prolonged use of PPI has been linked to the risk of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) though this fact is not well established. We aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the risk of IBD occurrence with PPI use. Methodology. The databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Library were accessed from inception to December 2020. Additionally, the bibliographic search and a random search in Google, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate were performed to find additional sources. The observational studies estimating the risk of IBD following the use of PPI, published in the English language were considered for this review. The methodological quality of included studies was assessed using the Modified Downs and Black checklist. Results. Eight out of 2038 studies with 157,758 participants were included in this meta-analysis. A significantly higher risk of IBD (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.43; 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 1.18-5.02; P=0.02; n=6) was observed in participants taking PPIs for any indication. Moreover, a significant association was observed between PPI exposure on the different types of IBD such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease together (aOR: 3.60; 95% CI: 1.10-11.74), collagenous colitis (OR: 4.73; 95% CI: 1.99-11.22) and lymphocytic Colitis (OR: 3.77; 95% CI: 2.91- 4.87), but not with ulcerative colitis (P=0.47) and microscopic colitis (P=0.07) alone. Similarly, a significant association was observed among Europeans (aOR: 3.98; 95% CI: 2.36-6.71), but not with North American (aOR: 0.48; 95% CI: 0.01- 26.71) studies. Overall the study quality was good. Conclusion. The current evidence indicates that exposure to PPI is significantly associated with increased risk of IBD. Further, adequately powered studies from various parts of the world are needed for better quantification and generalizability of our findings. PROSPERO Protocol Registration Number: CRD42020209674

Background: The World Health Organization estimates that there are approximately 5.4 million snakebites and 1.8–2.7 million cases of envenomation, with 81 410–137 880 deaths each year worldwide. Aims: To estimate the prevalence of neurotoxic and haemotoxic snakebite envenomation through a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: We searched Medline/PubMed, Scopus and Cochrane Library up to January 2021 using keywords such as snakebite and snake envenomation. Bibliographic and random searches were also performed. Prospective or retrospective observational studies and randomized controlled trials were included for the review. Results: We included 271 of 9711 studies published between 1963 and 2020. The pooled prevalence of snakebite from 188 studies with a total of 207 235 participants showed the highest prevalence in North America (69.20%; 95% confidence interval, CI: 57.06–81.34%) and lowest in Africa (28.10%; 95% CI: 22.22–33.98%). There was a pooled prevalence of 24.94% (95% CI: 22.84–27.03%) for haemotoxicity, with a highest prevalence of coagulopathy (43.76%; 95% CI: 33.15–54.37%). The overall prevalence of neurotoxicity was 38.20% (95% CI: 31.88–44.53%), with a highest prevalence of ptosis (53.57%; 95% CI: 38.51–68.62%). Conclusion: There was a higher prevalence of snakebites in North America. The most prevalent haemotoxicity and neurotoxicity were coagulopathy and ptosis, respectively. The overall quality of evidence was good with a non-significant publication bias.

Background: According to the World Health Organization, globally, there are ~5.4 million snake bites and 1.8–2.7 million cases of envenomation, with 81 410–137 880 deaths annually. Aims: To estimate using a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis the prevalence of neurotoxic and haemotoxic snake bite envenomation. Methods: Medline/PubMed, Scopus and Cochrane Library were searched up to January 2021 using keywords such as snake bite and snake envenomation. A bibliographic search and random search were also performed. Prospective or retrospective observational studies and randomized controlled trials were included in the review. Results: We included 271 of 9711 studies published between 1963 and 2020. The pooled prevalence of snakebite from 188 studies with a total of 207 235 participants showed the highest prevalence in North America [69.20%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 57.06–81.34%] and lowest in Africa (28.10%; 95% CI: 22.22–33.98%). There was a pooled prevalence of 24.94% (95% CI: 22.84–27.03%) of haemotoxicity, with a highest prevalence of coagulopathy (43.76%; 95% CI: 33.15–54.37%). The overall prevalence of neurotoxicity was 38.20% (95% CI: 31.88–44.53%), with a highest prevalence of ptosis (53.57%; 95% CI: 38.51–68.62%). Conclusion: There was a higher prevalence of snakebite in North America. The most prevalent haemotoxicity and neurotoxicity were coagulopathy and ptosis, respectively. The overall quality of evidence was good with a nonsignificant publication bias.