The increased use of thin section (i.e., less than 10-mm (3/8-in.) thick) steel in ship panel construction has aggravated distortion problems, adding to the costs for fitting and flame straightening. This paper describes the results of a study to evaluate techniques for control of distortion in thin panels used in ship construction. The objective of this project is to identify cost effective techniques for controlling distortion. Buckling is usually the dominant mode of distortion in thin panels, followed by angular distortion. Means of reducing both forms of distortion are discussed. During the design phase relatively small adjustments to the design, such as changing plate thickness or stiffener spacing, can significantly reduce distortion. Improving manufacturing techniques, including reducing weld size, implementing intermittent welding, and restraining the panel during welding, can also make a major impact on reducing distortion. New techniques such as egg-crate construction, laser welding, thermal tensioning, back-side line heating, back-bending, and weld quenching also show promise.

Weld shrinkage data models were developed for thin uniform and complex ship panels to predict in-plane shrinkage. The complex features in the thin panels include cutouts, inserts, multiple thicknesses, and nonrectangular-shaped panels. By analyzing the measured data, it was found that there was no clear indication that a cutout affected the overall panel in-plane shrinkage, although it induced more out-of-plane distortion. It was observed that the inserts induced additional butt joint across-weld and along-weld shrinkage and did not affect the fillet-weld shrinkage. The weld shrinkage data models were embedded in Microsoft Excel spreadsheets for ease of use. The spreadsheets permit the user to input the panel design parameters including material type, plate thickness, stiffener shape, spacing, and length, and overall panel dimensions as well as complex-panel features that include inserts, multiple plate thicknesses, and nonrectangular-shaped panels. The user can also provides fabrication details such as the welding process, weld sizes, welding parameters, and the use of fixtures.

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Weld residual stress plays an important role in the production and operating performance of ship structures. Various factors such as background noise, vibration, movement during ship construction, a layer of primer on the plate surface, and a layer of paint after ship construction bring challenges to measure weld residual stress in a shipyard. Three large test panels made of DH-36, High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA), HSLA-65, and HSLA-80 steels were fabricated to examine the feasibility of using commercially available portable x-ray diffraction (XRD) equipment to measure residual stress in a shipyard environment. The measured results show that portable XRD equipment provided reliable measurements, with the shipyard environment effects, on the panels made of DH-36 and HSLA-65. On the other hand, the primer affected the accuracy of measured residual stress on the panel made of HSLA-80, but electropolishing could have been used to remove the primer to achieve a good measurement. 1. Introduction Welding is one of the most important manufacturing processes in shipbuilding and inevitably induces residual stress and distortion on ship structures. In addition, flame straightening, often used to remove distortion in the final stage of shipbuilding, can result in even higher residual stress because of higher constraints after ship structures are assembled. It is well known that residual stress affects the buckling strength, fatigue performance, corrosion resistance, and dimensional stability of ship structures. As shipbuilding has been increasingly using thinner and higher strength materials such as HSLA-80 and HSLA-100 to reduce weight and increase mobility, residual stress plays an even more important role in the operating performance of ship structures. Understanding the residual stress evolution from raw material to a completed ship during service is critical to improve the ship's performance. Multiple methods have been developed to measure residual stress which can be classified into three categories: nondestructive techniques, semidestructive techniques, and destructive techniques. The common nondestructive techniques include x-ray diffraction (XRD) (Gou et al. 2015), neutron diffraction (Kartal et al. 2006; Palkowski et al. 2013), magnetic method, ultrasonic methods (Bray & Junghans 1995), and impact-indentation method (Lin et al. 2005; Choi et al. 2010; Zhu et al. 2015). The semidestructive techniques include holedrilling and ring-core methods, and the destructive techniques include block removal, splitting, layering, and contour methods (Tebedge et al. 1973; Leggatt et al. 1996). The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Electric Power Research Institute organized an international round robin program to measure weld residual stress in pressurized water reactor primary cooling loop components containing dissimilar metal welds (Fredette et al. 2011; Rathbun et al. 2011). Neutron diffraction, deep-hole drilling, XRD, surface-hole drilling, ring-core method, and contour method were used to measure residual stress in this program. The measured results between different measurement techniques were compared and validated against each other. In addition, a round robin study in Europe was conducted to investigate the accuracy of the XRD method from March 2012 to December 2013 (GKN & DAkkS 2014). Thirty laboratories and companies determined the residual stresses in the surface of two reference samples. Statistical evaluation of all results found that the XRD method has a good measurement accuracy. The robust means are between 4.7 and 6.3 MPa and the robust deviations are between 3.1 and 4.0 MPa. These studies have greatly improved the residual stress measurement techniques.

A weld shrinkage prediction model was developed for thin uniform ship panels to predict in-plane shrinkage. The weld shrinkage prediction model consists of a series of empirical equations developed by analysis of shrinkage data from welded panels fabricated in the shipyards. These panels ranged in thickness from 3 mm to 9.5 mm and were welded with processes including submerged arc, flux cored arc, and gas metal arc welding. All fabrication data were carefully recorded using practices that were common over each of the shipyards. Measurements of the panels were made throughout each step of fabrication to provide accurate weld shrinkage data. The data were then analyzed by regression analysis to produce equations that permit the calculation of weld shrinkage based on the conditions used for fabrication. These shrinkage model equations were embedded in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for ease of use.