Six types of family-of-origin frames-coping, modeling, role, definition, reversal, and loyalty frames-are utilized in understanding three common couple interactional situations: pursuing/distancing, overfunctioning/underfunctioning, and blaming/placating. Clinical examples are used to illustrate the process of constructing family-of-origin frames in couples therapy.

Three experiments assessed the conditions that potentiate effects of an electroconvulsive shock (ECS) administered 24 h after avoidance training. Stimuli present immediately prior to the ECS were systematically varied. In Experiment 1, which employed a passive avoidance task, the primary determinant of whether the ECS disrupted retention was whether the situational cues present at the time of ECS delivery were those associated with the initial training experience: ECS disrupted performance only when it was administered in the original training apparatus, regardless of whether or not a footshock was presented immediately prior to ECS. In Experiment 2, which employed an active, shuttlebox avoidance task, both the situational cues from the training apparatus and a footshock were necessary to potentiate the disruptive effects of the ECS. Experiment 3 revealed that ECS effects on performance of the active avoidance task can also be potentiated by a combination of apparatus cues and the warning signal used in initial training. These results are interpreted as indicating that informational functions of stimuli present when an ECS is administered are important determinants of the effects of the ECS.The disruptive effects of amnestic agents such as electroconvulsive shock (ECS) on retention are usually most apparent when the amnestic treatment is administered with a minimal time lag following the initial learning experience. This time dependency has served as the empirical cornerstone of most theoretical edifices (e.g., Glickman, 1961;McGaugh, 1966) constructed to explain the effects of amnestic agents. This time dependency, however, differs considerably from experiment to experiment, and there are a variety of conditions under which amnestic treatments are effective even when they are administered hours or days after the initial training

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