Within host cells such as macrophages, Salmonella enterica translocates virulence (effector) proteins across its vacuolar membrane via the SPI-2 type III secretion system. Previously, it was shown that when expressed ectopically, the effectors SseK1 and SseK3 inhibit tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)-induced NF-κB activation. In this study, we show that ectopically expressed SseK1, SseK2, and SseK3 suppress TNF-α-induced, but not Toll-like receptor 4- or interleukin-induced, NF-κB activation. Inhibition required a DXD motif in SseK1 and SseK3, which is essential for the transfer of N-acetylglucosamine to arginine residues (arginine-GlcNAcylation). During macrophage infection, SseK1 and SseK3 inhibited NF-κB activity in an additive manner. SseK3-mediated inhibition of NF-κB activation did not require the only known host-binding partner of this effector, the E3-ubiquitin ligase TRIM32. SseK proteins also inhibited TNF-α-induced cell death during macrophage infection. Despite SseK1 and SseK3 inhibiting TNF-α-induced apoptosis upon ectopic expression in HeLa cells, the percentage of infected macrophages undergoing apoptosis was SseK independent. Instead, SseK proteins inhibited necroptotic cell death during macrophage infection. SseK1 and SseK3 caused GlcNAcylation of different proteins in infected macrophages, suggesting that these effectors have distinct substrate specificities. Indeed, SseK1 caused the GlcNAcylation of the death domain-containing proteins FADD and TRADD, whereas SseK3 expression resulted in weak GlcNAcylation of TRADD but not FADD. Additional, as-yet-unidentified substrates are likely to explain the additive phenotype of a Salmonella strain lacking both SseK1 and SseK3.

Many Gram-negative bacterial pathogens antagonize anti-bacterial immunity through translocated effector proteins that inhibit pro-inflammatory signaling. In addition, the intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium initiates an antiinflammatory transcriptional response in macrophages through its effector protein SteE. However, the target(s) and molecular mechanism of SteE remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate that SteE converts both the amino acid and substrate specificity of the host pleiotropic serine/threonine kinase GSK3. SteE itself is a substrate of GSK3, and phosphorylation of SteE is required for its activity. Remarkably, phosphorylated SteE then forces GSK3 to phosphorylate the non-canonical substrate signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) on tyrosine-705. This results in STAT3 activation, which along with GSK3 is required for SteE-mediated upregulation of the anti-inflammatory M2 macrophage marker interleukin-4Ra (IL-4Ra). Overall, the conversion of GSK3 to a tyrosine-directed kinase represents a tightly regulated event that enables a bacterial virulence protein to reprogram innate immune signaling and establish an anti-inflammatory environment.

The Salmonella-secreted effector SseK3 translocates into host cells, targeting innate immune responses, including NF-κB activation. SseK3 is a glycosyltransferase that transfers an N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) moiety onto the guanidino group of a target arginine, modulating host cell function. However, a lack of structural information has precluded elucidation of the molecular mechanisms in arginine and GlcNAc selection. We report here the crystal structure of SseK3 in its apo form and in complex with hydrolyzed UDP-GlcNAc. SseK3 possesses the typical glycosyltransferase type-A (GT-A)-family fold and the metal-coordinating DXD motif essential for ligand binding and enzymatic activity. Several conserved residues were essential for arginine GlcNAcylation and SseK3-mediated inhibition of NF-κB activation. Isothermal titration calorimetry revealed SseK3's preference for manganese coordination. The pattern of interactions in the substrate-bound SseK3 structure explained the selection of the primary ligand. Structural rearrangement of the C-terminal residues upon ligand binding was crucial for SseK3's catalytic activity, and NMR analysis indicated that SseK3 has limited UDP-GlcNAc hydrolysis activity. The release of free N-acetyl α-d-glucosamine, and the presence of the same molecule in the SseK3 active site, classified it as a retaining glycosyltransferase. A glutamate residue in the active site suggested a double-inversion mechanism for the arginine N-glycosylation reaction. Homology models of SseK1, SseK2, and the Escherichia coli orthologue NleB1 reveal differences in the surface electrostatic charge distribution, possibly accounting for their diverse activities. This first structure of a retaining GT-A arginine N-glycosyltransferase provides an important step toward a better understanding of this enzyme class and their roles as bacterial effectors.