[1] To understand the evolution of the Alpine orogen, knowledge of the actual structure of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system is important. We perform high-resolution teleseismic tomography with manually picked P wave arrival times from seismograms recorded in the greater Alpine region. The resulting data set consists of 4199 relative P wave arrivals and 499 absolute P wave arrivals from 76 teleseismic events, corrected for the contribution of the Alpine crust to the travel times. The three-dimensional (3-D) crustal model established from controlled-source seismology data for that purpose represents the large-scale Alpine crustal structure. Absolute P wave arrival times are used to compute an initial reference model for the inversion. Tests with synthetic data document that the combination of nonlinear inversion, high-quality teleseismic data, and usage of an a priori 3-D crustal model allows a reliable resolution of cells at 50 km  50 km  30 km. Hence structures as small as two cells can be resolved in the upper mantle. Our tomographic images illuminate the structure of the uppermost mantle to depth of 400 km. Along strike of the Alps, the inversion reveals a high-velocity structure that dips toward the SE beneath the Adriatic microplate in the western and central Alps. In the eastern Alps we observe a northeastward dipping feature, subducting beneath the European plate. We interpret this feature in the western and central Alps as subducted, mainly continental European lower lithosphere. For the east, we propose that parts of the Vardar oceanic basin were subducted toward the NE, forcing continental Adriatic lower lithosphere to subduct northeastward beneath the European plate.INDEX TERMS: 7203 Seismology: Body wave propagation; 7218 Seismology: Lithosphere and upper mantle; 8180 Tectonophysics: Tomography; KEYWORDS: crust and upper mantle, seismic tomography, Alpine orogen, body waves Citation: Lippitsch, R., E. Kissling, and J. Ansorge, Upper mantle structure beneath the Alpine orogen from high-resolution teleseismic tomography,

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Several continental and oceanic plates and/or terranes amalgamated during the formation of the tectonically complex Alpine arc. Reliable knowledge of the present structure of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system throughout the Alpine arc from the Western through the Central to the Eastern Alps is crucial for understanding the evolution of this orogen and the current interaction of lithospheric blocks, and additionally, for assessing the amount and orientation of lithosphere subducted in the geological past. We have compiled results from earlier geophysical studies and reinterpretations of existing seismic and geological data for the Alpine crust and Moho. High-resolution teleseismic tomography was used to produce a detailed 3D seismic model of the lower lithosphere and asthenosphere. The combination of these techniques provides new images for the entire lithosphere-asthenosphere system, showing significant lateral variations to depths of 400 km. Over the years the crustal structure has been determined extensively by active seismic techniques (deep seismic sounding) with laterally variable coverage and resolution. For a closer view three international seismic campaigns, using mainly near-vertical reflection techniques in the Western, Central and Eastern Alps, were carried out to assess the crustal structure with the highest possible resolution. The synoptic reinterpretation of these data and an evaluation of existing interpretations have allowed us to construct four detailed deep crustal transects across the Alps along the ECORS-CROP, NFP-20/EGT and TRANSALP traverses. In addition, contour maps of the Moho for the wider Alpine region and of the top of the lower crust were compiled from existing seismic refraction, near-vertical and wide-angle reflection data. Substantial structural differences in the structure of the deep crust appear between the Western, Central and Eastern Alps: doubling of European lower crust in the west resulted from collision with the Ivrea body; indentation of lower Adriatic crust between European lower crust and Moho occurred in the Central Alps; and a narrow collision structure exists under the transitional area between the western and eastern subduction regime under the Tauern Window of the Eastern Alps, where the crustal structure resembles a large-scale flower structure. Most recently, high-resolution teleseismic tomography based on thea prioriknown 3D crustal structure and compilation of a high-quality teleseismic dataset was successfully developed and applied to derive reliable detailed images of the lower lithosphere. Along strike of the Alps a fast slab-like body is revealed which in the western part is subducted beneath the Adriatic microplate. In the Western Alps detachment of parts of the lower continental slab occurred, possibly induced by the Ivrea body, which acted as a buttress in the collision process of the European and Adriatic plates. The generally SE-directed subduction of the European continental lithosphere changes gradually from west to east to almost vertical under the westernmost part of the Eastern Alps (western Tauern Window and Giudicarie lineament). Unexpectedly, some 50 km further east the subducted continental lower lithosphere is now part of the Adriatic lithosphere and dips NE beneath the European plate. Our tomographic image documents clear bipolar slab geometries beneath the Alpine orogen. The depth extent of the subducted continental lithospheric slab agrees rather well with estimates of post-collisional crustal shortening for the Western and Central Alps. This kinematic control on amounts of lateral motion of the collision zone in the west also allows estimates of the subduction and collision process in the Eastern Alps. The new 3D lithospheric picture for the wider Alpine region to 400 km depth demonstrates the clear connection and interaction between the deep structure of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system and near-surface tectonic features as seen today. It provides new and unexpected evidence for the entire Alpine tectonic evolution, a process which obviously changes significantly from west to east.

Summary The effect of an a priori known 3‐D crustal model in teleseismic tomography of upper‐mantle structure is investigated. We developed a 3‐D crustal P‐wave velocity model for the greater Alpine region, encompassing the central and western Alps and the northern Apennines, to estimate the crustal contribution to teleseismic traveltimes. The model is constructed by comparative use of published information from active and passive seismic surveys. The model components are chosen to represent the present large‐scale Alpine crustal structure and for their significant effect on the propagation of seismic wavefields. They are first‐order structures such as the crust–mantle boundary, sedimentary basins and the high‐velocity Ivrea body. Teleseismic traveltime residuals are calculated for a realistic distribution of azimuths and distances by coupling a finite‐difference technique to the IASP91 traveltime tables. Residuals are produced for a synthetic upper‐mantle model featuring two slab structures and the 3‐D crustal model on top of it. The crustal model produces traveltime residuals in the range between −0.7 and 1.5 s that vary strongly as a function of backazimuth and epicentral distance. We find that the non‐linear inversion of the synthetic residuals without correcting for the 3‐D crustal structure erroneously maps the crustal anomalies into the upper mantle. Correction of the residuals for crustal structure before inversion properly recovers the synthetic slab structures placed in the upper mantle. We conclude that with the increasing amount of high‐quality seismic traveltime data, correction for near‐surface structure is essential for increasing resolution in tomographic images of upper‐mantle structure.

S U M M A R YThe Torfajökull volcanic system is one of approximately 30 active volcanoes comprising the neovolcanic zones of Iceland. The central volcano of the system is the largest silicic centre in Iceland with a caldera of approximately 12 km diameter. Its high-temperature geothermal system is one of the most powerful in Iceland. Torfajökull is a source of persistent seismicity, where both high-and low-frequency earthquakes occur. To study this microseismicity in detail, a temporary array of 20 broad-band seismic stations was deployed between 2002 June and November. These temporary stations were embedded in the permanent South Iceland Lowland (SIL) network and data from nine adjacent SIL stations were included in this study. A minimum one-dimensional (1-D) velocity model with station corrections was computed for earthquake relocation by inverting manually picked P-and S-wave arrival times from events occurring in the Torfajökull volcanic centre and its surroundings. High-frequency earthquakes from the Torfajökull volcanic centre were then relocated calculating a non-linear, probabilistic solution to the earthquake location problem. Subsequently, we correlated the waveforms of these 121 events (∼2000 observations) to define linked events, calculated the relative traveltime difference between event pairs and solved for the hypocentral separation between these events. The resulting high-resolution pattern shows a tighter clustering in epicentre and focal depth when compared with original locations. Earthquakes are mainly located beneath the caldera with hypocentres between 1 and 6 km depth and lie almost exclusively within the geothermal system. A sharp cut-off in seismicity at 3 km suggests either that there is a marked temperature increase or that this is a structural boundary. No seismic activity was observed in the fissure swarms to the northeast (NE) and southwest (SW) of the volcanic centre.Precise earthquake hypocentre locations are required to study structure and processes that trigger seismic activity. The spatial and temporal distribution of earthquakes provide information on tectonic regime and material properties of an area, and on the depth of the brittle-ductile transition.The accuracy of hypocentre locations and their uncertainties depend on several factors, including the number and type of available seismic phases recorded at the seismometers, the accuracy with which arrival times can be measured, the network geometry, knowledge of the crustal velocity structure and the linear approximation to a set of non-linear equations, which is assumed in the inversion. Standard earthquake location routines mostly use one-dimensional (1-D) velocity models. In general, such reference models are constructed using a priori information such as the surface geology, and seismic refraction and reflection data. The accuracy of the 1-D model can be improved by including information from recorded earthquakes, usually by a joint hypocentre-velocity inversion (Kissling 1988;Kissling et al. 1994). By calculating 1-D stat...