Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a zoonotic obligate intracellular bacterium known to be transmitted by ticks belonging to the Ixodes persulcatus complex. This bacterium can infect several mammalian species, and is known to cause diseases with variable symptoms in many domestic animals. Specifically, it is the causative agent of tick-borne fever (TBF), a disease of important economic impact in European domestic ruminants, and human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), an emerging zoonotic disease in Asia, USA and Europe. A. phagocytophilum epidemiological cycles are complex and involve different ecotypes, vectors, and mammalian host species. Moreover, the epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum infection differs greatly between Europe and the USA. These different epidemiological contexts are associated with considerable variations in bacterial strains. Until recently, few A. phagocytophilum molecular typing tools were available, generating difficulties in completely elucidating the epidemiological cycles of this bacterium. Over the last few years, many A. phagocytophilum typing techniques have been developed, permitting in-depth epidemiological exploration. Here, we review the current knowledge and future perspectives regarding A. phagocytophilum epidemiology and phylogeny, and then focus on the molecular typing tools available for studying A. phagocytophilum genetic diversity.

The putative role of biting flies in Bartonella transmission among ruminants was investigated. Amplification of the Bartonella citrate synthase gene from 83 Hippoboscidae was detected in 94% of 48 adult Lipoptena cervi flies, 71% of 17 adult Hippobosca equina flies, 100% of 20 adult Melophagus ovinus flies, and 100% of 10 M. ovinus pupae. Our findings suggest that Hippoboscidae play a role in the transmission of Bartonella among ruminants. The vertical transmission of Bartonella in M. ovinus and the presence of Bartonella DNA in all samples suggest a symbiotic association between Bartonella and M. ovinus.Bartonella spp. are intracellular small gram-negative bacteria transmitted by blood-sucking arthropods and considered to be emerging pathogens in humans and animals (1,8,9,22). In recent years, these organisms have been identified in a wide range of wild and domestic mammals (4, 6, 7, 11), some of which have been associated with zoonoses. Recently, four new Bartonella species have been isolated from ruminants: B. schoenbuchensis and B. capreoli were recovered from wild roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) (3, 10), whereas B. bovis (3) and B. chomelii (20) were recovered from domestic cattle. There are no pathological outcomes associated with Bartonella infection in ruminants (5, 7).Arthropod vectors involved in the transmission of Bartonella spp. among ruminants are still unknown. As blood-sucking ectoparasites of ruminants, flies of the family Hippoboscidae are good candidates for the transmission of Bartonella. Among Hippoboscidae, Lipoptena, Hippobosca, and Melophagus are the three main genera which parasitize mammals (14, 18). The deer ked (Lipoptena cervi), the predominant Lipoptena species in Europe, parasitizes cervids (15), whereas the louse fly (Hippobosca equina) parasitizes cows and horses and the sheep ked (Melophagus ovinus) is a permanent ectoparasite of sheep (Ovis aries) (18).The aim of this study was to determine if Hippoboscidae could be putative vectors of Bartonella spp. in ruminants. We investigated whether Bartonella DNA could be detected in adult and pupal stages of Hippoboscidae collected from ruminants (domestic cattle and roe deer) known to be naturally infected with Bartonella spp. We extended the study to Hippoboscidae collected from sheep and horses for which no evidence of Bartonella infection had ever been demonstrated.Collection and identification of Hippoboscidae. Eighty-three Hippoboscidae flies of different species, stages, and genders were collected and taxonomically identified under a binocular lens (18). Samples were obtained from the hosts or from our parasitology collection (Table 1). Each sample was stored in absolute ethanol.DNA extraction and PCR. Each fly and pupa were washed three times in sterile water baths and once in a 70% ethanol bath and then dried. DNA was then extracted after the flies were crushed with a bead beater as previously described (16).A 380-bp fragment of the citrate synthase (gltA) gene of the genus Bartonella was amplified in fly DNA extracts by PCR, us...

BackgroundThere has been a growing interest in camel anaplasmosis due to its recent emergence in this reservoir species and concerns for its zoonotic potential. The epidemiology of anaplasmosis in camels therefore remains poorly understood mostly because camels belong to marginalised poor and often transhumant populations whose interests are largely neglected. Most studies of anaplasmosis in camels have relied on microscopy and serology for diagnosis and only three studies, undertaken in Tunisia, Saudia Arabia and China, have used molecular diagnostics. The present work characterises Anaplasmataceae strains circulating in the Camelus dromedarius reservoir in Morocco using PCR.MethodsCamels (n = 106) were randomly sampled from 6 regions representing different agro-ecological areas in southern Morocco. Whole blood was collected and screened using PCR methods targeting the gene groEL. Anaplasmataceae strains were characterised by sequence analysis of the gene groEL.ResultsA total of 39.62% (42/106) camels screened were positive for Anaplasmataceae spp. GenBank BLAST analysis of five positive sequenced samples revealed that all strains were 100% identical to “Candidatus Anaplasma camelii”. Phylogenetic investigation and genetic characterisation of the aligned segment (650 bp) of the gene groEL confirmed high similarity with A. platys.ConclusionThis study demonstrates the circulation of a previously unidentified species of the genus Anaplasma in Morocco which is genetically close to the agent causing canine anaplasmosis but whose main reservoir is thought to be Camelus dromedarius.Trial registration numberThis study is not a clinical trial and therefore a trial registration number does not apply.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40249-016-0216-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.