Fructus Aurantii (FA) is a traditional herbal medicine that has been widely used for thousands of years in China and possesses a variety of pharmacological effects. However, the active ingredients in FA and the potential mechanisms of its therapeutic effects have not been fully explored. Here, we applied a network pharmacology approach to explore the potential mechanisms of FA. We identified 5 active compounds from FA and a total of 209 potential targets to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. Prostaglandin G/H synthase 2 (PTGS2), heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), cell division protein kinase 6 (CDK6), caspase 3 (CASP3), apoptosis regulator Bcl-2 (Bcl-2), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) were identified as key targets of FA in the treatment of multiple diseases. Gene ontology (GO) enrichment demonstrated that FA was highly related to transcription initiation from RNA polymerase II promoter, DNA-templated transcription, positive regulation of transcription, regulation of apoptosis process, and regulation of cell proliferation. Various signaling pathways involved in the treatment of FA were identified, including pathways in cancer and pathways specifically related to prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, PI3K-Akt, apoptosis, and non-small-cell lung cancer. TP53, AKT1, caspase 3, MAPK3, PTGS2, and BAX/BCL2 were related key targets in the identified enriched pathways and the PPI network. In addition, our molecular docking results showed that the bioactive compounds in FA can tightly bind to most target proteins. This article reveals via network pharmacology research the possible mechanism(s) by which FA exerts its activities in the treatment of various diseases and lays a foundation for further experiments and the development of a rational clinical application of FA.

The internal sulfate attack of concrete, which is caused by iron sulfide, was investigated, and the attack mechanism is also proposed in this study. The specimens were collected from a bridge pier suffering from pop-outs and showing visible rust staining. The microstructure and chemical composition of the field and laboratory specimens were characterised by scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy and X-ray diffractometry. Iron sulfides were observed in the oxidised aggregates of the pop-out particles. Iron sulfates, the intermediate product, were found to form a condensed shell surrounding the aggregate. Various secondary products were identified and calcium silicate hydrates were degraded. According to the abundance, spatial location, morphology and associated cracking of the gypsum, it is suggested that the expansive stress is mainly induced by the gypsum. Cracking occurs under the combined effects of mechanical stress and lack of bond strength in the mortar. The deterioration of concrete is caused by iron sulfide oxidation following the internal sulfate attack.

Geopolymers have been considered a sustainable alternative to ordinary Portland cement (CEM I) for its lower embodied carbon and ability to make use of industrial by-products. Additionally, its excellent engineering properties of high strength, low permeability, good chemical resistance, and excellent fire resistance also strike a chord in the minds of researchers. The goal of this study is to clarify the effect of calcium sources on the mechanical properties and microstructures of the geopolymers. CEM I was chosen as the sole calcium source, while metakaolin was used as the source material. Five distinct geopolymers were prepared, having various ratio of CEM I: 0%, 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30%. The alkali-activator was a mixture of 12 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3), utilizing compressive strength and flexural strength to evaluate the changes of the geopolymers’ mechanical properties. SEM, XRD, and FTIR were used to examine microscopic features, evaluate internal morphology, and analyze changes in components of the geopolymers containing different amounts of CEM I. The experimental results indicated that the optimal incorporation of CEM I was 5%. Under this dosage, the compressive strength and flexural strength of the geopolymers can reach 71.1 MPa and 6.75 MPa, respectively. With the incorporation of CEM I, the heat released by cement hydration can accelerate the geopolymerization reaction between silica-alumina materials and alkaline solutions. Additionally, the coexistence of N-A-S-H gel from components of an aluminosilicate mix and C-S-H gel from the CEM I promoted a more densified microstructure of the geopolymers and improved the geopolymer’s strength. However, as the amount of CEM I in the mixture increased, the geopolymer matrix was unable to provide enough water for the CEM I to hydrate, which prevented excessive CEM I from forming hydration products, weakening the workability of the matrix and eventually hindering the development of geopolymer strength.