Metformin is a biguanide, evolved as one of the most widely used medicines. The applications of this component include but are not limited to reducing blood glucose, weight loss, and polycystic ovary syndrome. Studies about other probable indications have emerged, indicating that this agent can also be utilized for other purposes. In this review, applications of metformin are noticed based on the current evidence. Metformin commonly is used as an off-label drug in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but it worsens inflammation and should not be used for this purpose, according to the latest research. Metformin decreased the risk of death in patients with liver cirrhosis. It is an effective agent in the prevention and improvement of survival in patients suffering hepatocellular carcinoma. There is evidence of the beneficial effects of metformin in colorectal cancer, early-stage prostate cancer, breast cancer, urothelial cancer, blood cancer, melanoma, and bone cancer, suggesting metformin as a potent anti-tumor agent. Metformin shows neuroprotective effects and provides a potential therapeutic benefit for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It also has been shown to improve mental function and reduce the incidence of dementia. Another condition that metformin has been shown to slow the progression of is Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Regarding infectious diseases, tuberculosis (TB) and coronavirus disease (COVID-19) are among the conditions suggested to be affected by metformin. The beneficial effects of metformin in cardiovascular diseases were also reported in the literature. Concerning renal function, studies showed that daily oral administration of metformin could ameliorate kidney fibrosis and normalize kidney structure and function. This study reviewed the clinical and preclinical evidence about the possible benefits of metformin based on recent studies. Numerous questions like whether these probable indications of metformin can be observed in non-diabetics, need to be described by future basic experiments and clinical studies.

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Purpose Esophageal cancer is the second most common cancer among men and women. There is a need to systematically assess the current evidence to map out the contribution of genetic factors in the development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Methods A literature search was carried out on published and unpublished studies up to August 2021 in Medline (PubMed), Embase (Ovid), Scopus, Proquest, Web of Science, and Google scholar. Studies that have reported the frequency of genetic mutations in ESCC were included in this study. Results A total of 1238 titles were retrieved through searches, and finally, 56 articles, including 8114 samples, met our predefined inclusion criteria. Of the included studies, 31 were conducted in China, 12 in Japan, and the remaining were conducted in various nations, including Brazil, Korea, and Iran. Most of our included studies evaluated the TP53 (n = 37 studies) and PIK3CA (n = 30 studies) gene mutations.

Cancer is a gravely important health issue all over the world and has been spreading fast. In recent years immune checkpoint treatment options have been used extensively as a primary line of treatment for different cancer types. PD‐1 and its ligand, PD‐L1, are members of the immune‐checkpoints superfamily. Anti‐PD‐L1 and anti‐PD‐1 antibodies have shown efficacy against different cancer types, but fewer than 30% of patients have shown robust therapeutic responses and, therefore, it is hypothesized that exosomal PD‐L1 is the mechanism to blame for failure in primary immune checkpoint therapy. The identical membrane topology of exosomal PD‐L1 with tumor cell membrane‐type provides the possibility to mimic immunosuppressive effects of tumor cell membrane PD‐L1. In this review, it is discussed whether exosomal PD‐L1 binds to antibodies and hence resistance to immunotherapy will be developed, and targeting exosome biogenesis inhibition can provide a new strategy to overcome tumor resistance to anti‐PD‐L1 therapy. Diagnostic and prognostic values of exosomal PD‐L1 in different cancer types are discussed. Multiple clinical studies conclude that the level of tumor‐derived exosomes (TEXs) as a biomarker for diagnosis could distinguish cancer patients from healthy controls. Elevated exosomal PD‐L1 levels may be predictive of advanced disease stages, cancer metastasis, lower response to anti‐PD‐1/PD‐L1 therapy, lower overall survival rates, and poor tumor prognosis. These novel findings of TEXs serve as promising therapeutic targets for early diagnosis and prevention of cancer progression.

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