Autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and type-1 diabetes, are the outcomes of a failure of immune tolerance. Immune tolerance is sustained through interplays between two inter-dependent clusters of immune activities: immune stimulation and immune regulation. The mechanisms of immune regulation are exploited as therapeutic targets for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. One of these mechanisms is immune checkpoints (ICPs). The roles of ICPs in maintaining immune tolerance and hence suppressing autoimmunity were revealed in animal models and validated by the clinical successes of ICP-targeted therapeutics for autoimmune diseases. Recently, these roles were highlighted by the clinical discovery that the blockade of ICPs causes autoimmune disorders. Given the crucial roles of ICPs in immune tolerance, it is plausible to leverage ICPs as a group of therapeutic targets to restore immune tolerance and treat autoimmune diseases. In this review, we first summarize working mechanisms of ICPs, particularly those that have been utilized for therapeutic development. Then, we recount the agents and approaches that were developed to target ICPs and treat autoimmune disorders. These agents take forms of fusion proteins, antibodies, nucleic acids, and cells. We also review and discuss safety information for these therapeutics. We wrap up this review by providing prospects for the development of ICP-targeting therapeutics. In summary, the ever-increasing studies and results of ICP-targeting of therapeutics underscore their tremendous potential to become a powerful class of medicine for autoimmune diseases.

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IntroductionTo simplify the medical treatment of glaucoma for patients on multiple drops by introducing brinzolamide/brimonidine tartrate fixed combination (BBFC) ophthalmic suspension 1%/0.2% (SIMBRINZA®; Alcon Laboratories, Inc., Fort Worth, TX, USA) to the drop regimen and to establish its efficacy. To demonstrate that fixed combination (FC) therapies are associated with improvements in treatment adherence and persistence with reduced exposure to preservative-related ocular surface problems.MethodsRetrospective study: 76 patients were identified as taking BBFC following a switch in treatment regimen. Intraocular pressure (IOP) prior to and 2–17.5 months (average 5.4 months) after the introduction of BBFC was measured. The change in the average number of bottles used per eye was recorded. The rate of adverse effects (AEs) of BBFC was recorded. A two-tailed paired sample t test was used to compare IOP prior to and after the introduction of BBFC for each eye.ResultsMean change in IOP after BBFC introduction BBFC: − 2.76 mmHg (p < 0.0001). BBFC intolerance: 13%. On average there was a 0.24 reduction in the number of bottles of IOP-lowering medication used per eye (p < 0.0064).ConclusionA switch to BBFC in the drop regimen is associated with a significant drop in IOP with reduced drop burden. Instead of a third IOP-lowering medication and bottle, a practitioner should consider using BBFC + prostaglandin analogue/FC drop for effective IOP control, reduced drop burden, reduced preservative load and increased likelihood of adherence. This study promotes the concept that any treatment should principally be assessed from the patients’ perspective and quality of life.

Background & Objective: Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) known as a neurodevelopmental disorder showing communication impairments and unusual patterns of behavior .It seems that ASD frequency is on the increase. Therefore, diagnostic tools that help detect the disease in the early stages can be very useful in better management of the disease. Recent studies represent that miRNAs as novel biomarkers can be used to find out the process and etiology of ASD by regulating various genes of multiple pathways. However, ASD associated pathway targeted by miRNA is still in infancy. Methods: In this in-silico study taking into consideration the importance of miRNAs, we reviewed bioinformatics databases for finding possible pathways and potential miRNAs related to selected pathways. Results: The results displayed some prominent pathways involved in ASD, as well as some experimental and predicted miRNAs that may regulate targets associated with these pathways such as neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, serotonergic synapse, calcium signaling pathway, cAMP Signaling Pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Conclusion: This study showed that the identified miRNAs may be involved in ASD-related pathways and may be considered as a new diagnostic tool and provide potential targets for the treatment of ASD.