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In sum, readers will find Werner's book to be a great source of infor mation related to the hardships involved on overland journeys to the West Coast. They will also find a pervasive case made for the near limitless strength of the human spirit. Those concerned with why children were forced to endure these hardships and thereafter exert this kind of strength had better look elsewhere. In terms of a general account of the overland jour neys, the book does little to challenge the work of historians such as John Unruh or John Mack Faragher.

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When labor strikes, it says to its master: I shall no longer work at your command. When it votes for a party of its own, it says: I shall no longer vote at your command. When it creates its own classes and colleges, it says: I shall no longer think at your command. Labor's challenge to education is the most fundamental of the three. Henry de Man (1921) A GROWING BODY OF LITERATURE is calling for the historical study of educational experiences outside of the realm of the established school system. Lawrence Cremin has recommended that educational historians move beyond the traditional analysis of schools and colleges. In Traditions of A merican Education, he broadly defines education "as the deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to transmit, evoke, or acquire knowledge, values, skills, or sensibilities, as well as any outcomes of that effort." 1 Herbert Gutman similarly urges that educational historians transcend the exclusive study of institutional history by exploring such untouched areas as the "selfactivity" of workers and its relationship to class development and class forrnation.! Rolland Paulston delineates a theoretical framework to ascertain the social and economic conditions, ideological bases, programmatic characteristics, and contributions of "nonformal education" in social movements. He posits that nonformal education functions as structured, systematic,