Polycations such as polyethylenimine (PEI) are used in many novel nonviral vector designs and there are continuous efforts to increase our mechanistic understanding of their interactions with cells. Even so, the mechanism of polyplex escape from the endosomal/lysosomal pathway after internalization is still elusive. The "proton sponge " hypothesis remains the most generally accepted mechanism, although it is heavily debated. This hypothesis is associated with the large buffering capacity of PEI and other polycations, which has been interpreted to cause an increase in lysosomal pH even though no conclusive proof has been provided. In the present study, we have used a nanoparticle pH sensor that was developed for pH measurements in the endosomal/lysosomal pathway. We have carried out quantitative measurements of lysosomal pH as a function of PEI content and correlate the results to the "proton sponge " hypothesis. Our measurements show that PEI does not induce change in lysosomal pH as previously suggested and quantification of PEI concentrations in lysosomes makes it uncertain that the "proton sponge " effect is the dominant mechanism of polyplex escape.

Particle-based nanosensors have over the past decade been designed for optical fluorescent-based ratiometric measurements of pH in living cells. However, quantitative and time-resolved intracellular measurements of pH in endosomes and lysosomes using particle nanosensors are challenging, and there is a need to improve measurement methodology. In the present paper, we have successfully carried out time-resolved pH measurements in endosomes and lyosomes in living cells using nanoparticle sensors and show the importance of sensor choice for successful quantification. We have studied two nanoparticle-based sensor systems that are internalized by endocytosis and elucidated important factors in nanosensor design that should be considered in future development of new sensors. From our experiments it is clear that it is highly important to use sensors that have a broad measurement range, as erroneous quantification of pH is an unfortunate result when measuring pH too close to the limit of the sensitive range of the sensors. Triple-labeled nanosensors with a pH measurement range of 3.2–7.0, which was synthesized by adding two pH-sensitive fluorophores with different pK a to each sensor, seem to be a solution to some of the earlier problems found when measuring pH in the endosome–lysosome pathway.

Seven fulvestrant resistant cell lines derived from the estrogen receptor α positive MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line were used to investigate the importance of epidermal growth factor receptor (ErbB1-4) signaling. We found an increase in mRNA expression of EGFR and the ErbB3/ErbB4

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Our ability to design receptor-targeted nanocarriers aimed at drug release after endocytosis is limited by the current knowledge of intracellular nanoparticle (NP) trafficking. It is not clear if NP size, surface chemistry, and/or targeting of cell surface receptors changes the intracellular fate of NPs; i.e., will all NPs enter acidic compartments and eventually end up in lysosomes or are there escape mechanisms or receptor-specific signaling that can be induced to change the cellular processing of an internalized NP? To give new insight into the intracellular trafficking of NPs that target the CD44 receptor, which is overexpressed on the surface of a broad variety of cancer cells, we have synthesized an NP pH sensor system that targets CD44. We used a polyacrylamide nanoparticle matrix bearing hyaluronic acid (HA) on the surface as a CD44 targeting ligand. The HA-coated NPs were prepared by radical polymerization followed by post functionalization with sensor fluorophores and physically absorbed or chemically conjugated HA. Cell uptake studies showed significant uptake of HA-coated nanosensors in HeLa cells and no uptake under the same conditions without the HA targeting ligand. The pH distribution profile in cells was measured for nanosensors with HA, cationic, and noncharged NP surface coatings giving a clear indication of the intracellular pH environment that the different NPs experience after internalization. The pH profile of cationic nanosensors in comparison to HA conjugated nanosensors indicates that the intracellular trafficking is aimed at lysosomes regardless of whether CD44 receptor-specific or unspecific uptake is induced.