Toll-like receptor (TLR) signals that initiate innate immune responses to pathogens must be tightly regulated to prevent excessive inflammatory damage to the host. The adaptor protein Mal is specifically involved in signaling via TLR2 and TLR4. We demonstrate here that after TLR2 and TLR4 stimulation Mal becomes phosphorylated by Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) and then interacts with SOCS-1, which results in Mal polyubiquitination and subsequent degradation. Removal of SOCS-1 regulation potentiates Mal-dependent p65 phosphorylation and transactivation of NF-kappaB, leading to amplified inflammatory responses. These data identify a target of SOCS-1 that regulates TLR signaling via a mechanism distinct from an autocrine cytokine response. The transient activation of Mal and subsequent SOCS-1-mediated degradation is a rapid and selective means of limiting primary innate immune response.

WORTH A SECOND LOOKOur search for reviews for IUBMB Life includes essays appearing in media of more limited circulation that merit exposure to an international readership. One source of excellent reviews is the Australian Biochemist, the newsletter for the Australian Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc. A review on protease-activated receptors was published there in December 2001 (vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 13-15). The author, Eleanor J. Mackie, kindly agreed to provide the updated version published here. We thank her and the Society, particularly the Newsletter Editor, Philip Nageley, for their cooperation, which will include granting permission to reprint, where material from the original is reproduced in its original form. -The Editors

Spectator sporting events have traditionally lured the majority of the focus of sponsorship practice and research; however, the participant sports industry has been shown to be 2-4 times larger than its spectator counterpart. Recently, organisations have begun investing in the sponsorship of participant sports at an increasing rate. The typical objective of sponsorship practices has been to obtain the transfer of the event's image onto the sponsor. However, this study argues that, due to the general lack of prestige portrayed by participant sporting events, image transfer may not be appropriate or ideal. Rather, it suggests that firms should attempt to instill feelings of gratitude within their targeted consumer base. Research has shown that these feelings possess a reciprocal function in the relationship between a benefactor and a beneficiary such that beneficiaries will attempt to repay acquired benefits. This study proposes a model that portrays

PAR-2 is expressed by osteoblasts and activated by proteases present during inflammation. PAR-2 activation inhibited osteoclast differentiation induced by hormones and cytokines in mouse bone marrow cultures and may protect bone from uncontrolled resorption.Introduction: Protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2), which is expressed by osteoblasts, is activated specifically by a small number of proteases, including mast cell tryptase and factor Xa. PAR-2 is also activated by a peptide (RAP) that corresponds to the "tethered ligand" created by cleavage of the receptor's extracellular domain. The effect of activating PAR-2 on osteoclast differentiation was investigated. RAP had no effect on osteoclast differentiation in RANKL-treated RAW264.7 cells. Conclusion: These observations indicate that PAR-2 activation inhibits osteoclast differentiation by acting on cells of the osteoblast lineage to modulate multiple mediators of the effects of PTH, 1,25(OH) 2 D 3 , and IL-11. Therefore, the role of PAR-2 in bone may be to protect it from uncontrolled resorption by limiting levels of osteoclast differentiation.