Summary 1.Maternal effects often explain a significant amount of variation in offspring phenotype, and can be important in the evolution of life histories. Incubation of eggs is an important maternal effect, and optimal growth and development of avian embryos takes place within a narrow range of incubation temperatures, but the effect of incubation microclimate on neonate phenotype remains relatively unexplored in birds. 2. In this study of Wood Ducks ( Aix sponsa Linnaeus) we examined effects of incubation temperature on the length of incubation period and neonate quality. We monitored nest temperatures and incubation periods of naturally incubated Wood Duck nests and found a strong inverse relationship between incubation period and average nest temperature. 3. Next, we collected three unincubated eggs from each of 48 nests, and randomly assigned eggs from each nest to one of three incubation temperatures (34·6, 36·0 and 37·4 ° C). Experimental incubation temperatures overlapped average nest temperatures of naturally incubated Wood Duck nests. 4. Hatching success varied with incubation temperature and was lowest for eggs incubated at the lowest temperature. Incubation period of experimental eggs decreased with increasing temperature but was not affected by fresh egg mass. 5. Wood Duck embryos catabolized an estimated 34-38% of egg lipids and 25-33% of egg protein during incubation. Percentage change of lipids increased with decreasing incubation temperature, but not significantly. Embryos incubated at lower temperatures used a greater percentage of protein than embryos incubated at higher temperatures. 6. In analyses using fresh egg mass as the covariate, we found that wet and dry mass of ducklings increased with increasing incubation temperature. Decreases in lipid content of Wood Duck neonates with decreasing incubation temperature were not significant, but eggs incubated at low temperatures produced ducklings that had reduced protein mass and that were structurally larger than ducklings from eggs incubated at high temperatures. 7. Our study illustrates the importance of incubation temperature on the development of Wood Duck embryos. Decisions made by incubating parents that influence egg temperature can modify incubation period and offspring phenotype. Investigations of incubation as a reproductive cost should consider how parental decisions influence both parents and offspring.

Avian parents that physically incubate their eggs must balance demands of self-maintenance with providing the proper thermal environment for egg development. Low incubation temperatures can lengthen the incubation period and produce changes in neonate phenotype that may influence subsequent survival and reproduction. We artificially incubated wood duck (Aix sponsa) eggs at three temperature regimes (low, 35.0; mid, 35.9; and high, 37.3°C) that are within the range of temperatures of naturally-incubated nests. We tested the effect of incubation temperature on duckling body composition, fledging success, the probability that females were recruited to the breeding population, and their subsequent reproductive success. Incubation period was inversely related to incubation temperature, and body mass and lipid mass for newly-hatched ducklings incubated at the lowest temperature were lower than for ducklings produced at higher temperatures. In 2008, ducklings (n = 412) were individually marked and broods (n = 38) containing ducklings from each temperature treatment were placed with wild foster mothers within 24 hrs of hatching. Ducklings incubated at the lowest temperature were less likely to fledge from nest sites than ducklings incubated at the higher temperatures. We recaptured female ducklings as adults when they were either prospecting for nest sites (n = 171; 2009–2011) or nesting (n = 527; 2009–2012). Female ducklings incubated at the lowest temperature were less likely to survive and be recruited to the breeding population than females incubated at higher temperatures. Reproductive success of surviving females also was greater for females that had been incubated at warmer temperatures. To our knowledge, this is the first avian study to link developmental conditions experienced by neonates during incubation with their survival and recruitment to the breeding population, and subsequent reproductive success. These results advance our understanding of incubation as an important reproductive cost in birds and support the potential significance of incubation in influencing the evolution of avian life histories.

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Mercury contamination of wildlife populations has been documented widely in recent years as biomonitoring has become an important tool for assessing environmental contamination. Avian eggs provide an ideal assay material for Hg biomonitoring, particularly when the collection of eggs is simplified by using cavity-nesting species that nest in easily monitored nest boxes. However, studies are needed that address the dynamics of how Hg is distributed within eggs, and how Hg is deposited naturally within clutches laid by a single female and among clutches laid by different females occupying the same contaminated environment. We collected 138 eggs from 13 complete clutches of box-nesting wood ducks (Aix sponsa) during 1991 and 1992 at a contaminated reservoir of the U.S. Department of Energy's Savannah River Site in South Carolina, USA. Total Hg residues in egg components and clutches were determined, partitioning of Hg among egg components was examined, and effects of egg-laying sequence on egg component Hg levels were determined. Mean albumen Hg was 0.22 ppm wet mass, mean yolk Hg was 0.04 ppm, and mean shell Hg was 0.03 ppm. On average, 86.1% of total egg Hg was concentrated in the albumen, 11.2% in the yolk, and 2.7% in the shell. Mercury concentrations in all egg components varied significantly among clutches and between successive clutches laid by the same female in the same year. Laying sequence significantly affected Hg concentrations in the albumen and shell, but not in the yolk. Declines of albumen Hg due to laying sequence were more pronounced for clutches that contained higher average Hg levels. Our results suggest that collection of first-laid eggs may be preferable for assessing maximal Hg exposure to developing embryos, and that monitoring Hg levels through the use of empty eggshells following brood departure from nests may be valid only if the laying sequence is known.

We collected 138 freshly laid Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) eggs from 13 nests to determine the effects of egg size, laying sequence, and skipped laying days on egg composition. All components except yolk ash and eggshell, both wet and dry, increased in direct proportion to fresh-egg mass. Egg size increased during the first half of laying and decreased thereafter. The effects of laying sequence were component-specific. Absolute levels of neutral lipids (comprising 65.6% of dry yolk) were near average until about 75% of the clutch was completed and then declined. Mass of albumen components tended to increase sharply with the first few eggs and then decrease as laying progressed. Fat indices (egg lipid/lean dryegg content) tended to be highest in the first 40% of the clutch. We interpret laying-sequence effects on egg composition as adaptations that enable female Wood Ducks to initiate incubation before clutch completion and still allow for synchronous hatching without compromising the hatching success of first-laid eggs. Hens frequently skipped a laying day between the penultimate and ultimate egg, which tended to increase the mass of the yolk component in last-laid eggs compared with those that were laid the day following the penultimate egg.