Researchers have generally compared council-manager municipalities against mayor-council forms when seeking to measure the efficiency gains envisioned by early twentieth century reformers. Many studies have used per capita expenditure levels of municipalities as a proxy for efficiency, associating lower spending levels with greater efficiency. This study utilizes the "Adapted Cities Framework" advocated by Frederickson, Johnson, and Wood (2004) which classifies municipalities into five, rather than two, institutional types to analyze per capita expenditure data from a national survey of 1,000 small municipalities. Using OLS regression and other statistical analyses, the authors demonstrate that there is a significant difference between the per capita expenditure levels of the five city types. As municipalities more closely conform to the pure reformed councilmanager model of government, higher per capita expenditure levels are evidenced.

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interaction and relationships that have very little to do with personal characteristics (Connell 2006). Organizations more often perpetuate gender divisions of labor and cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity in comparison to the people within them (Connell 2006). Research has shown that workplace inequalities are sustained by roles and stereotypes, intergroup relationships, and organizational culture and climate (Hale 1999). The gender complexities that exist within public organizations are due to gender division of labor, gender relations of power, emotion and human relations, and gender culture and symbolism (Connell 2006). The structural and organizational factors that have impeded the advancement of females into the higher ranks of professional life are often termed glass ceilings, glass walls, sticky floors, and trap doors (

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Women govern differently and offer a distinct voice in the governing process yet remain significantly underrepresented among city managers and chief administrative officers. Despite decades of work to improve gender parity, women hold just 13% of chief local government positions according to the International City/County Managers Association (ICMA). One reason for this may be that women have different experiences and are socialized differently than men, as suggested by differing motivations, identities, and attitudes. Using a mixed-methods approach, we explore differences in the experiences and socialization of women and men that may contribute to the gender disparity in representation among city managers. Our study yields several significant findings that suggest women are mentored differently, develop different political attitudes over time, and develop confidence differently than their male counterparts. Contrary to prior research, we did not find significant differences in public service motivations by gender or year of service.