Beaked whales are deep divers, emitting echolocation clicks while at depth. Little is known about the dive behavior of most species; however, passive acoustic data collected with towed hydrophone arrays can provide depth information using multipath reflections of clicks coupled with a two-dimensional localization of the individual. Data were collected during a shipboard survey in the western North Atlantic Ocean using a towed linear hydrophone array. Beaked whale tracks were classified as either Cuvier's (Ziphius cavirostris) or Gervais'/True's (Mesoplodon europaeus/Mesoplodon mirus). Weighted species average depths and weighted species standard deviations were 1158 m ± 287 m for Cuvier's (n = 24), and 870 m ± 151 m for Gervais'/True's (n = 15). Depth uncertainties ranged from 3% to 142% of the average depth. Slant ranges were corrected for depth to provide average horizontal perpendicular distance estimates. The average horizontal perpendicular distance distribution exhibited fewer detections in the first bin than the second. This is the first report of dive depths for Gervais'/True's beaked whales and use of this method to obtain depths for beaked whales using a towed linear array.

Multipath localization techniques have not previously been applied to baleen whale vocalizations due to difficulties in application to tonal vocalizations. Here it is shown that an autocorrelation method coupled with the direct reflected time difference of arrival localization technique can successfully resolve location information. A derivation was made to model the autocorrelation of a direct signal and its overlapping reflections to illustrate that an autocorrelation may be used to extract reflection information from longer duration signals containing a frequency sweep, such as some calls produced by baleen whales. An analysis was performed to characterize the difference in behavior of the autocorrelation when applied to call types with varying parameters (sweep rate, call duration). The method's feasibility was tested using data from playback transmissions to localize an acoustic transducer at a known depth and location. The method was then used to estimate the depth and range of a single North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) and humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) from two separate experiments.

Sperm whales are an ideal species to study using passive acoustic technology because they spend the majority of their time underwater and produce echolocation clicks almost continuously while foraging. Passive acoustic line transect data collected between June and August 2016 were used to estimate a depth-corrected acoustic abundance and study the dive behaviour of foraging sperm whales in the western North Atlantic Ocean. 2D localizations (n = 699) were truncated at a slant range of 6500 m and combined with the multipath arrivals of surface reflected echoes to calculate 3D localizations (n = 274). Distance sampling using depth-corrected perpendicular distances resulted in a 10.5% change in the acoustic abundance estimate (2199 whales, CV = 14.6%) compared to uncorrected slant ranges (1969 whales, CV = 14.1%), and a detection function that was a better fit for the data. Sperm whales exhibited multiple foraging strategies, with bottom phases occurring at depths of 400–800, 800–1200, or > 1200 m, accounting for an average 39.2, 49.5, or 44.9% of the total recorded dive time, respectively. These results suggest that estimating 3D localizations using acoustic line transect data improves acoustic abundance estimation and can be used to answer population level questions about foraging ecology.

A simple method was developed to extract time of arrival information from overlapping direct and reflected acoustic signals using an autocorrelation algorithm in order to localize marine mammals with the direct-reflected time difference of arrival (DRTD) technique. DRTD has up to now been limited to pulsed signals such as whale or dolphin clicks where individual direct and reflected signal arrival times are separated in time and thus easily identified. Using autocorrelation, longer duration signals such as a frequency sweep or whale up-call could be analyzed by DRTD, expanding its compatibility to a larger range of signal types. This correlation-modified DRTD technique was applied to simulated and previously acquired experimental data. Both the simulations and experiments represented localization cases involving bottom-mounted receivers with a single acoustic source at multiple known locations. Experimental data came from autonomous acoustic recording units deployed in the Stellwagen National Marine Sanctuary with an acoustic transducer used to broadcast frequency sweeps.