Reliable computer systems must handle malfunctioning components that give conflicting information to different parts of the system. This situation can be expressed abstractly in terms of a group of generals of the Byzantine army camped with their troops around an enemy city. Communicating only by messenger, the generals must agree upon a common battle plan. However, one or more of them may be traitors who will try to confuse the others. The problem is to find an algorithm to ensure that the loyal generals will reach agreement. It is shown that, using only oral messages, this problem is solvable if and only if more than two-thirds of the generals are loyal; so a single traitor can confound two loyal generals. With unforgeable written messages, the problem is solvable for any number of generals and possible traitors. Applications of the solutions to reliable computer systems are then discussed.

ABSTRACT. The problem addressed here concerns a set of isolated processors, some unknown subset of which may be faulty, that communicate only by means of two-party messages. Each nonfaulty processor has a private value of reformation that must be communicated to each other nonfanlty processor. Nonfaulty processors always communicate honestly, whereas faulty processors may lie The problem is to devise an algorithm in which processors communicate their own values and relay values received from others that allows each nonfaulty processor to refer a value for each other processor The value referred for a nonfanlty processor must be that processor's private value, and the value inferred for a faulty one must be consistent wRh the corresponding value inferred by each other nonfanlty processor It is shown that the problem is solvable for, and only for, n >_ 3m + 1, where m IS the number of faulty processors and n is the total number. It is also shown that if faulty processors can refuse to pass on reformation but cannot falsely relay information, the problem is solvable for arbitrary n _> m _> 0. This weaker assumption can be approxunated m practice using cryptographic methods

Abstract. A method ~s g~ven for dec~dlng formulas in combinations of unquantified first-order theories. Rather than couphng separate decision procedures for the contributing theories, the method makes use of a single, uniform procedure that minimizes the code needed to accommodate each additional theory. It ~s apphcable to theories whose semantics can be encoded within a certain class of purely equational canonical form theories that ~s closed under combination. Examples are given from the equational theories of integer and real anthmeUc, a subtheory of monadic set theory, the theory of cons, car, and cdr, and others. A discussion of the speed performance of the procedure and a proof of the theorem that underhes ~ts completeness are also g~ven. The procedure has been used extensively as the deductive core of a system for program specificaUon and verifcation.

No abstract