Children at three age levels were tested for recognition memory of adult male faces following three different orienting activities at encoding. One group received standard intentional learning instructions, another group judged whether or not each face had a big nose, and a third group judged whether or not each face appeared "nice." Memory improved with age, and judgments of niceness facilitated memory equally at all ages. The results pose difficulties for Brown's model of memory development proposed in 1975.According to Brown (1975), memory tasks may be considered along two dimensions: whether or not strategies are required for efficient performance and whether or not episodic or semantic memory is primarily involved. The significance for developmental theory of Brown's model lies in her attempt to predict which types of memory tasks will be developmentally sensitive. Tasks that demand no strategic intervention and that are primarily episodic in nature will be the least sensitive to developmental factors. Brown cites some studies showing no age-related improvement in recognition of pictures as support for this position. However, recent articles by Nelson and Kosslyn (1976) and Tversky and Teiffer (1976) have found clear developmental trends in recognition memory for pictorial material. It might still be possible to cling to Brown's arguments about the lack of a developmental trend for highly episodic, nonstrategic tasks if one makes the assumption that, after all, pictures of common objects tap preexisting knowledge about the world and thus have a substantial semantic memory component. It seemed to us that remembering pictures of faces that one has never seen before is as episodic a task as one is likely to encounter without introducing special problems associated with the use of random forms and other kinds of meaningless material. To be specific, Brown's hypothesis would be strengthened if no developmental trend were found in recognition memory for faces. Evidence for developmental trends in memory for faces has been found by Goldstein and Chance (1964), but Cross, Cross, andDaly (1971) found no effect of age.

Three types of communication--verbal, nonverbal, and private speech--were investigated in 4- and 5-year-old children. Multiple analyses of variance (MANOVAs) without IQ controlled and multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) with IQ as a covariate were computed and followed by ANOVAs and ANCOVAs to determine the effects of sex, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) on each of these types of communication. The ANOVAs and the ANCOVAs yielded the same conclusions. Results indicated that age and SES, but not sex, influence the use of the three communication types. From age 4 to age 5, private speech decreased for middle SES children and remained the same for lower SES children. Although lower SES children had more nonverbal communication at both age levels than middle SES children, nonverbal communication decreased for middle SES children and increased for lower SES children between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Both lower and middle SES groups increased in verbal communication between the two ages. The middle SES 4-year-olds used more verbal communication than their lower SES counterparts, and the difference was maintained at age 5. Although IQ is related to verbal communication, statistically controlling for the effects of IQ did not change the conclusions.

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This research aimed to develop a set of effective communication based teaching skills for early childhood education teacher which evolved according to Indonesian National Curriculum Framework used recently in Early Childhood Education Department, Faculty of Education, Universitas Negeri Jakarta. The Research will be done in two years using research and development method. Literature review has been done concerning on effective communication and teaching skill for the first year and conducted a set of teaching skill indicators. Data are collected from early childhood education teachers in Jakarta related to theory and practice of teaching skill by observation, interview and performance test. The result of the research is indicators for early childhood education teachers' teaching skill. On the other hand, a draft of effective communication practices is conducted to be implemented in teachers' teaching skill. Both of these concepts will be used to develop a model of effective communication based teaching skills for early childhood teacher. The result may become a consideration of the education institution of educators, researcher and government in developing training model to improve teachers' teaching skill.

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