This study uses contemporary metrics and data from an original, representative sample of water and sewer utilities in the United States to calculate the affordability of basic single-family residential water and sewer services for lowincome households in 2019. Results show that affordability conditions have worsened on average since the last such study in 2017: low-income households must spend an average of 12.4% of their disposable income (up from 10.9%) and/or work 10.1 h at minimum wage (up from 9.9 h) to pay for basic monthly water and sewer services. Analysis suggests that rising prices combine with underlying economic trends to exacerbate affordability. K E Y W O R D Saffordability, drinking water, rates, sewer

Key TakeawaysIn 2019, US utilities on average charged the equivalent of 10.1 hours’ labor at minimum wage for basic monthly water and sewer service for a four‐person household.Basic water and sewer service cost an average of 12.4% of disposable income for a four‐person household at the 20th percentile income.US water and sewer service on average became less affordable over the past two years, varying by region and utility ownership, driven by increasing water and nonwater prices.

Key Takeaways Adopt‐a‐Drain is a popular and growing program aimed at improving stormwater system performance and engaging the public to participate in water management. Drain adoption in Houston, Seattle, and Virginia Beach is unrelated to flood risk but strongly correlated with demographic and socioeconomic factors. Utilities’ public engagement and education programs should include outreach to high‐risk, low‐socioeconomic‐status, and/or demographically diverse neighborhoods.

Despite decades of controversy about the relationship between special districts and public policy, questions remain about the impact of government specialization on service delivery. In this paper, we explore one aspect of this debate, how special districts impact equity in the costs of service delivery, using water affordability as our empirical case. Two dominant views of special districts have emerged from the literature that are relevant to our empirical exploration. The first asserts that special districts are a form of “shadow government,” set up for the benefits of developers and other special interests and unaccountable to the general population. The second claims that special districts fit into a polycentric vision of local government, better representing the interests of residents due to their singular policy focus, and improving residents’ ability to pinpoint politicians responsible for specific services. Using an original dataset of all public water utility in the United States serving over 40,000 people and two measures of water affordability, we quantitatively test whether special districts have systematically less affordable water rates. We find some evidence that this is the case, additionally finding that the gap in affordability grows as community poverty levels increase.