Following the invention of the first computed tomography (CT) scanner in the early 1970s, many innovations in threedimensional (3D) diagnostic imaging technology have occurred, leading to a wide range of applications in craniofacial clinical practice and research. Three-dimensional image analysis provides superior and more detailed information compared with conventional plain two-dimensional (2D) radiography, with the added benefit of 3D printing for preoperative treatment planning and regenerative therapy. Current state-of-the-art multidetector CT (MDCT), also known as medical CT, has an important role in the diagnosis and management of craniofacial injuries and pathology. Three-dimensional cone beam CT (CBCT), pioneered in the 1990s, is gaining increasing popularity in dental and craniofacial clinical practice because of its faster image acquisition at a lower radiation dose, but sound guidelines are needed to ensure its optimal clinical use. Recent innovations in micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) have revolutionized craniofacial biology research by enabling higher resolution scanning of teeth beyond the capabilities of MDCT and CBCT, presenting new prospects for translational clinical research. Even after four decades of refinement, CT technology continues to advance and broaden the horizons of craniofacial clinical practice and phenomics research.Keywords: Multidetector CT, cone beam CT, micro-CT, dentistry, teeth.Abbreviations and acronyms: 2D = two-dimensional; 3D = three-dimensional; CBCT = cone beam computed tomography; CLP = cleft lip and palate; CT = computed tomography; DEJ = dentino-enamel junction; FGFR2 = fibroblast growth factor receptor 2; micro-CT = micro-computed tomography; MDCT = multidetector computed tomography; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging; nano-CT = nanocomputed tomography; OPG = orthopantomograph; PET = positron emission tomography.

Our findings provide evidence of significant size and shape variation in human premolars between the two ancestral groups. High classification rates based on shape analysis of upper premolars highlight potential application of geometric morphometrics in anthropological, bioarcheological and forensic contexts.

Shape analysis is important in anthropology, bioarchaeology and forensic science for interpreting useful information from human remains. In particular, teeth are morphologically stable and hence well-suited for shape analysis. In this work, we propose a framework for tooth morphometry using quasi-conformal theory. Landmark-matching Teichmüller maps are used for establishing a 1-1 correspondence between tooth surfaces with prescribed anatomical landmarks. Then, a quasi-conformal statistical shape analysis model based on the Teichmüller mapping results is proposed for building a tooth classification scheme. We deploy our framework on a dataset of human premolars to analyze the tooth shape variation among genders and ancestries.Experimental results show that our method achieves much higher classification accuracy with respect to both gender and ancestry when compared to the existing methods. Furthermore, our model reveals the underlying tooth shape difference between different genders and ancestries in terms of the local * Corresponding author.

The field of dental phenomics provides many opportunities to elucidate the roles of genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors in craniofacial development. To date, research findings have helped to clarify the pathogenesis of many conditions, aiding diagnosis and clinical management. This paper provides an overview of dental phenomics research in some commonly encountered oral diseases in everyday clinical practice, as well as research relating to craniofacial growth and development. Clinically, advances in cariology and periodontology have led to better diagnostic capabilities and treatment provision. In the study of growth and development, important information regarding the varying clinical presentation and pathogenesis of many disorders is now apparent through the accurate quantification of phenotypes. Improvements in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) imaging and analytical techniques have allowed for accurate dental phenotyping, and efforts are ongoing to apply these in vitro techniques to the in vivo setting. The field of dental phenomics represents an exciting avenue that links research findings to practical application, and collaboration between researcher and clinicians will help advance the field further.Keywords: Dentistry, genetics, epigenetics, phenomics, morphometrics.Abbreviations and acronyms: CL/P = cleft lip and/or palate; CPP-ACP = casein phosphopeptide-amorphous calcium phosphate. DP = digital photography; EDI = Enamel Defects Index; GIS = geographic information system; n-HAp = nano-hydroxyapatite; OPC = orientation patch count; OPCR = orientation patch count rotated; QLF = quantitative light-induced fluorescence; SMMCI = solitary maxillary median central incisor.

The quality of current commercial 3D printers has reached a good level of accuracy and detail reproduction. However, the costs and printing times limit its application to produce large sample numbers for use in most anthropological studies. Nonetheless, RP offers a viable option to preserve numerically constraint fragile skeletal and dental material in paleoanthropological collections.