This report summarizes the major findings of a 40‐year longitudinal study of a multi‐racial cohort of children who had been exposed to poverty, perinatal stress, parental psychopathology and family discord. Individuals are members of the Kauai Longitudinal Study, which followed all children born in 1955 on a Hawaiian island from the prenatal period to middle age. Several clusters of protective factors were identified that enabled most of the high‐risk individuals to develop into competent, confident and caring adults. Implications of the findings for developmental theory were discussed and issues for future research identified.

Three species of sunfishes segregate ecologically when stocked together in small ponds. When each species is stocked separately in replicate ponds, it exhibits competitive release through increases in growth rate and average food size. Niche shifts are indicated by convergence of these species to the same food habits in the absence of competitors. These shifts are due to phenotypic (behavioral) plasticity. The significance of niche flexibility is related to seasonal patterns in resource availability.

Eggs are a rich source of multiple nutrients that support child growth and development. Provision of eggs as a complementary food may improve dietary adequacy among young children at risk for undernutrition. Our objective was to test the impact of an egg intervention on the adequacy of total nutrient intakes and micronutrient density among 6-to 15-month-old Malawian children. Children 6 to 9 months old, living in Mangochi District, Malawi, were randomly assigned to the intervention group (n = 331) receiving an egg per day or a control group (n = 329) consuming their usual diet. Dietary intakes of macronutrients, vitamins and minerals were assessed using 24-h recalls at baseline, 3-month midline and 6-month endline, with repeat recalls in a subsample. Usual nutrient intake and micronutrient density distributions were modelled to estimate group means and prevalence of inadequacy. Group differences at midline and endline were tested using unequal variance t tests with bootstrapped standard errors. The egg intervention resulted in higher intakes of fat and protein and lower intakes of carbohydrates.The egg group had lower prevalence of inadequacy for selenium, vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin B 5 , vitamin B 12 and choline. Micronutrient density inadequacy was lower in the egg group for vitamin A and choline at midline and endline, riboflavin at midline and vitamin B 5 at endline. Inadequacy of nutrient intakes or density remained highly prevalent in both groups for multiple micronutrients. Though the egg intervention increased intakes of protein and several micronutrients, total intakes and micronutrient density of multiple micronutrients remained far below recommendations.

Objectives Young children with diets lacking diversity with low consumption of animal source foods are at risk of iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Our objectives were to determine the impact of supplementing diets with 1 egg/day on: (1) plasma ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), body iron index (BII), and hemoglobin concentrations; and (2) the prevalence of iron deficiency (ID), anemia, and IDA. Methods Malawian 6-9mo old infants in the Mazira trial (clinicaltrials.gov; NCT03385252) were individually randomized to receive 1 egg/day for 6mo (n = 331) or continue their usual diet (n = 329). In this secondary analysis, hemoglobin, plasma ferritin, sTfR, c-reactive protein (CRP), and α-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) were measured at enrollment and 6mo follow-up. Iron biomarkers were corrected for inflammation. Ferritin, sTfR, BII, and hemoglobin were compared between groups using linear regression. Prevalence ratios (PR) for anemia (hemoglobin<11g/dL) and ID (ferritin<12µg/L, sTfR>8.3mg/L, or BII<0mg/kg) between groups were compared using log binomial or modified Poisson regression. Results A total of 585 children were included in this analysis (Egg: n = 286; Control: n = 299). At enrollment, the total prevalence of anemia was 61% and did not differ between groups. At 6mo follow-up, groups did not differ in geometric mean concentration of hemoglobin [mean (95%CI); Egg: 10.9g/dL (10.7, 11.1); Control: 11.1 (10.9, 11.2)] and inflammation-adjusted ferritin [Egg: 6.52µg/L (5.98, 7.10); Control: 6.82 (6.27, 7.42)], sTfR [Egg: 11.34mg/L (10.92, 11.78); Control: 11.46 (11.04, 11.89)] or BII [Egg: 0.07mg/kg (0.06, 0.09); Control: 0.07 (0.05, 0.08)]. There were also no group differences in anemia [Egg: 46%; Control 40%; PR: 1.15 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.38)], ID [PR: 0.99 (0.94, 1.05)], or IDA [PR: 1.12 (0.92, 1.36)]. Conclusions Providing eggs daily for 6mo did not affect iron status or anemia prevalence in this context. Other interventions are needed to address the high prevalence of ID and anemia among young, Malawian children Trial registration: Clinical Trials NCT03385252

Objectives Young children with complementary feeding diets that lack diversity and have low micronutrient density are at risk of iron deficiency anemia. Our objectives were to determine the impact of supplementing diets with 1 egg/day on: (1) plasma ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), and hemoglobin (Hb) concentrations; and (2) the prevalence of iron deficiency (ID), anemia, and iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Methods Children age 6–9mo in the Mangochi District of Malawi were individually randomized to receive 1 egg/day for 6mo (n = 331) or continue their usual diet (n = 329). Venous blood samples were collected at enrollment and a 6mo follow-up by assessors masked to group assignment. Plasma ferritin, sTfR, c-reactive protein (CRP), and α1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) were assessed using ELISA and hemoglobin was measured using Hemocue analyzers. Ferritin and sTfR were corrected for inflammation using CRP and AGP in linear regression models. Ferritin, sTfR, and hemoglobin concentrations were compared between groups using linear regression models, adjusting for baseline values. The prevalence ratios (PR) of ID (fer < 12μg/L,  sTfR >8.3mg/L,  or total body iron< 0mg/kg),  anemia (Hb< 11g/dL),  and IDA (Hb < 11g/dL and ID) were compared between egg and control groups using binomial or Poisson regression models. Results A total of 585 children were included in this analysis (Egg: n = 286; Control: n = 299). At enrollment, the prevalence of anemia and IDA was 61% and 55%. At the 6mo follow-up, there was no difference between groups in inflammation-adjusted ferritin (geometric mean [95% CI]; Egg: 6.52µg/L [5.98,7.10];  Control: 6.82 [6.27, 7.42]) or sTfR (Egg: 11.34mg/L [10.92,11.78];  Control:  11.46 [11.04,11.89]) concentrations. There was also no difference in mean hemoglobin concentration between groups (mean [95%CI]; Egg: 11.0g/L [10.8,11.1];  Control:11.1 [11.0,11.3]). Overall, 43% of children had anemia, 89% had ID, and 40% had IDA. No group-level differences were observed in the prevalence of anemia [PR: 1.15 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.38)], ID [PR: 0.99 (0.94, 1.05)], or IDA [PR: 1.12 (0.92, 1.36)]. Conclusions Iron and anemia indices did not differ between the egg intervention group and control group. Other interventions are needed to address the high prevalence of iron deficiency and anemia among young, Malawian children. Funding Sources Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.