UFM1 is a member of the ubiquitin like protein family. While the enzymatic cascade of UFM1 conjugation has been elucidated in recent years, the biological function remains largely unknown. In this report we demonstrate that the recently identified C20orf116 [1], which we name UFM1-binding protein 1 containing a PCI domain (UFBP1), andCDK5RAP3 interact with UFM1. Components of the UFM1 conjugation pathway (UFM1, UFBP1, UFL1 and CDK5RAP3) are highly expressed in pancreatic islets of Langerhans and some other secretory tissues. Co-localization of UFM1 with UFBP1 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)depends on UFBP1. We demonstrate that ER stress, which is common in secretory cells, induces expression of Ufm1, Ufbp1 and Ufl1 in the beta-cell line INS-1E.siRNA-mediated Ufm1 or Ufbp1knockdown enhances apoptosis upon ER stress.Silencing the E3 enzyme UFL1, results in similar outcomes, suggesting that UFM1-UFBP1 conjugation is required to prevent ER stress-induced apoptosis. Together, our data suggest that UFM1-UFBP1participate in preventing ER stress-induced apoptosis in protein secretory cells.

Mutations in human Gli-similar (GLIS) 3 protein cause neonatal diabetes. The GLIS3 gene region has also been identified as a susceptibility risk locus for both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. GLIS3 plays a role in the generation of pancreatic beta cells and in insulin gene expression, but there is no information on the role of this gene on beta cell viability and/or susceptibility to immune- and metabolic-induced stress. GLIS3 knockdown (KD) in INS-1E cells, primary FACS-purified rat beta cells, and human islet cells decreased expression of MafA, Ins2, and Glut2 and inhibited glucose oxidation and insulin secretion, confirming the role of this transcription factor for the beta cell differentiated phenotype. GLIS3 KD increased beta cell apoptosis basally and sensitized the cells to death induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin 1β + interferon-γ) or palmitate, agents that may contribute to beta cell loss in respectively type 1 and 2 diabetes. The increased cell death was due to activation of the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway of apoptosis, as indicated by cytochrome c release to the cytosol, Bax translocation to the mitochondria and activation of caspases 9 and 3. Analysis of the pathways implicated in beta cell apoptosis following GLIS3 KD indicated modulation of alternative splicing of the pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein Bim, favouring expression of the pro-death variant BimS via inhibition of the splicing factor SRp55. KD of Bim abrogated the pro-apoptotic effect of GLIS3 loss of function alone or in combination with cytokines or palmitate. The present data suggest that altered expression of the candidate gene GLIS3 may contribute to both type 1 and 2 type diabetes by favouring beta cell apoptosis. This is mediated by alternative splicing of the pro-apoptotic protein Bim and exacerbated formation of the most pro-apoptotic variant BimS.

Pancreatic β-cell dysfunction is central to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes, and the loss of functional β-cell mass in type 2 diabetes is at least in part secondary to increased β-cell apoptosis. Accumulating evidence suggests that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is present in β-cells in type 2 diabetes. Free fatty acids (FFAs) cause ER stress and are putative mediators of β-cell dysfunction and death. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying ER stress induced by saturated and unsaturated FFAs. Oleate and palmitate trigger ER stress through ER Ca 2+ depletion and build-up of unfolded proteins in the secretory pathway. Saturated and unsaturated FFAs elicit a differential signal transduction in the three branches of the ER stress response, resulting in different survival/apoptosis outcomes. The protection of β-cells against FFAs through the interference with ER stress signalling has opened novel therapeutic perspectives for type 2 diabetes. Chemical chaperones, salubrinal and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogues have been used to protect β-cells from lipotoxic ER stress. Importantly, the pro-and antiapoptotic effects of these compounds are cell and context dependent.

Hypothalamic inflammation is a common feature of experimental obesity. Dietary fats are important triggers of this process, inducing the activation of toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) signaling and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Microglia cells, which are the cellular components of the innate immune system in the brain, are expected to play a role in the early activation of diet-induced hypothalamic inflammation. Here, we use bone marrow transplants to generate mice chimeras that express a functional TLR4 in the entire body except in bone marrow–derived cells or only in bone marrow–derived cells. We show that a functional TLR4 in bone marrow–derived cells is required for the complete expression of the diet-induced obese phenotype and for the perpetuation of inflammation in the hypothalamus. In an obesity-prone mouse strain, the chemokine CX3CL1 (fractalkine) is rapidly induced in the neurons of the hypothalamus after the introduction of a high-fat diet. The inhibition of hypothalamic fractalkine reduces diet-induced hypothalamic inflammation and the recruitment of bone marrow–derived monocytic cells to the hypothalamus; in addition, this inhibition reduces obesity and protects against diet-induced glucose intolerance. Thus, fractalkine is an important player in the early induction of diet-induced hypothalamic inflammation, and its inhibition impairs the induction of the obese and glucose intolerance phenotypes.

In search of an adequate model for the human metabolic syndrome, the metabolic characteristics of Wistar rats were analysed after being submitted to different protocols of high fructose ingestion. First, two adult rat groups (aged 90 d) were studied: a control group (C1; n 6) received regular rodent chow (Labina, Purina) and a fructose group (F1; n 6) was fed on regular rodent chow. Fructose was administered as a 10 % solution in drinking water. Second, two adult rat groups (aged 90 d) were evaluated: a control group (C2; n 6) was fed on a balanced diet (AIN-93G) and a fructose group (F2; n 6) was fed on a purified 60 % fructose diet. Finally, two young rat groups (aged 28 d) were analysed: a control group (C3; n 6) was fed on the AIN-93G diet and a fructose group (F3; n 6) was fed on a 60 % fructose diet. After 4-8 weeks, the animals were evaluated. Glucose tolerance, peripheral insulin sensitivity, blood lipid profile and body fat were analysed. In the fructose groups F2 and F3 glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity were lower, while triacylglycerolaemia was higher than the respective controls C2 and C3 (P,0·05). Blood total cholesterol, HDL and LDL as well as body fat showed change only in the second protocol. In conclusion, high fructose intake is more effective at producing the signs of the metabolic syndrome in adult than in young Wistar rats. Additionally, diet seems to be a more effective way of fructose administration than drinking water.Fructose: Metabolic syndrome: Insulin sensitivity: Body fat Clinically, the metabolic syndrome involves a cluster of disturbances in which glucose intolerance represents an important symptom. Metabolic syndrome diagnosis implies in positive results to at least three metabolic alterations including insulin resistance, hypertension, obesity, endothelial dysfunction and blood lipid profile alterations (1,2) . These multiple risk factors accelerate the incidence of CVD in a cooperative way (1 -4) . Obesity prevalence has quadrupled in the past 25 years in the USA; 16 % of children and 30 % of adults are now affected and many of these obese individuals suffer from the metabolic syndrome (5)