No abstract

Salivary cortisol is often used in occupational field studies when measuring stress reactions. For purposes of precision and accuracy in measurement, and interpretation of results, it is crucial to know the sources of variability that exert systematic influence on sampling. Variability can be both biological and methodological in origin, and failure to identify its sources may induce erroneous interpretations of Type I and Type II. This review aims to increase our knowledge and provide an overview of the biological and methodological variations of relevance for field measurements of salivary cortisol. It is concluded that: (i) time of sampling has to be carefully registered and included in the statistical analysis; (ii) samples have to be collected at the same time of year in longitudinal designs; (iii) food intake has to be avoided in at least the 2 h before sampling; (iv) vigorous exercise has to be avoided in at least the 2 h, preferably longer, before saliva is collected for measurement of cortisol; (v) variation in results obtained by different laboratory techniques emphasizes use of the same, or otherwise made comparable, laboratory techniques; (vi) concentration of cortisol is dependent on the material of the tampon; (vii) despite the absence of hard evidence, it is recommended that information be collected and results possibly statistically controlled for alcohol consumption, medication, such as oral contraceptives, and treatment for mental diseases; (viii) saliva samples can be stored at -20 degrees C for at least 1 year; (ix) cross-comparisons of absolute concentrations across studies might be difficult and therefore the establishment of reference intervals for the population studied and method used is recommended.

BackgroundTeachers are at high risk of stress-related disorders. This study aimed to examine the occurrence of burnout in a sample of Swedish school-teachers, to test a combined measure of three burnout dimensions on the individual level, to characterize associations between burnout and factors encountered during work and leisure time, and to explore any differences between the genders.MethodsA questionnaire of occupational, sociodemographic and life-style factors was answered by 490 teachers in school years 4–9. Outcome measures were (a) the single burnout dimensions of exhaustion, cynicism and professional efficacy (Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey), and (b) a combined measure based on high or low values in the three dimensions. The combined measure was used to stratify the study population into four levels (0–3) of burnout. Multivariable Poisson regression was applied on level 2 + 3 vs. level 0 + 1, for variables that we considered as relevant risk factors for burn out.ResultsHalf of the teachers reported low values in all three dimensions (level 0), whereas 15 were classified as having high burnout in at least two out of the three dimensions (level 2 + 3), and 4 % in all three dimensions (level 3). Almost all psychosocial factors were incrementally more unfavourably reported through the rising levels of burnout, and so were dissatisfaction with the computer workstation, pain, sleep problems and lack of personal recovery. There was no association between gender and rising levels of overall burnout (p > 0.30). Low self-efficacy, poor leadership, high job demands and teaching in higher grades were the variables most clearly associated with burnout in multivariable Poisson regression.ConclusionsEven if circa 50 % of the teachers appear do well with respect to burnout, the results points to the need of implementing multifaceted countermeasures that may serve to reduce burnout.

Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether and how knowledge hoarding, functions as antecedent and consequent of work related negative acts, as a measure of bullying. The authors investigate the relation as mediated by trust and justice. Design/methodology/approach -Data stem from a longitudinal study in which questionnaire responses were collected twice from 1,650 employees in 52 workplaces. Structural equation modelling was used to analyse the two models. Design-based corrections were made to accommodate the multi-level structure of data. Findings -The analyses showed that knowledge hoarding was both an antecedent and a consequent of negative acts. First, over time, knowledge hoarding was indirectly related to negative acts mediated by trust and justice. Second, negative acts were both directly and indirectly related to knowledge hoarding over time. The study thus points to the existence of a vicious circle of negative acts, psychological states of trust and justice, and knowledge hoarding behaviours, which presumably will affect both individual and organizational outcomes negatively. Research limitations/implications -The use of already collected, self-report data, single-item measures, and the two-year time lag could pose potential limitations to the study. Practical implications -Preventive and repair actions could potentially impact both negative acts and knowledge hoarding by focusing on increasing the social exchange quality at work unit level. Originality/value -This paper combines two strands of research, that of bullying at work and that of knowledge management, within which research on knowledge hoarding has been an under-researched area.

In identical work tasks, females showed substantially higher muscular activity in relation to capacity, and higher prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders of the neck and upper extremity, than did males.