Current policies to reduce energy consumption and CO 2 emissions associated with buildings focus on technological developments such as energy efficiency, renovation rates and renewable energies. While technological developments are effective at mitigating climate change, the omission of lifestyle changes such as lower floor area per capita and indoor temperatures as well as disruptive measures (e.g. replacement of highly energy-consuming buildings) leave untapped potential for further savings. A dynamic stock-driven model is presented that quantifies direct energy consumption and direct CO 2 emissions associated with the use phase of Swiss residential buildings. Eleven scenarios involving technological developments, lifestyle changes and disruptive measures are evaluated against relevant goals (Paris Agreement, Energy Strategy 2050 and 2000-Watt Society). Disruptive measures are modelled with a new combined lifetime-leaching approach. The scenario analysis indicates that the main leverage points for energy savings reside in lifestyle changes, whereas emission reductions can be highly levered by technological developments. Reaching all the goals is possible, but requires ambitious strategies. This study provides a basis for expanding the portfolio of climate change mitigation strategies for the residential building sector, although further research is needed to understand social, cultural and economic aspects, and indirect (embodied) emissions. Policy relevance Switzerland currently applies two policies in the building sector to reach the climate goals (Energy Strategy 2050, Paris Agreement and 2000-Watt Society). This study shows: (1) current policies (a CO 2 levy on fossil fuels for heating and the Buildings Program subsidising renewable energies and energy-efficient renovations) are effective at lowering energy consumption and CO 2 emissions, but insufficient to meet any of the goals; (2) reaching the Energy Strategy 2050 and Paris Agreement requires an extension of current policies and a complete phase-out of fossil fuels by 2050; and (3) achieving the 2000-Watt Society requires the measures described above, households heating only areas inside dwellings up to 20°C, and one of these three measures: (a) households living with 41 instead of 47 m 2 /cap, (b) increasing the renovation rate from 1.3% to 3.0%, and (c) replacing buildings consuming > 140 kWh/m 2 /yr. Further evaluations including social, cultural and economic aspects, and indirect energy consumption and embodied emissions are needed.

Sustainable development involves a responsible management of the interactions between humans and their built and natural environment. From a physical perspective, the interactions can be characterized as stocks and flows of energy and matter within and between these spheres. Understanding the dynamics of the stocks is essential to enable their responsible management. A large number of independent disciplines study the dynamics of individual stocks with specific methods. The resulting fragmentation of methods hampers interdisciplinary learning, including the integration of more specialized discipline‐specific models into more encompassing ones. Here, we develop a general mathematical framework for dynamic stock models based on balance, intrinsic, and model‐approach equations. We use the framework to classify a variety of stock models from different disciplines and discuss their applicability. The framework provides a common language for the interdisciplinary analysis of coupled human–environment systems. This article met the requirements for a gold‐gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.

Models that study the socio-economic metabolism often apply a lifetime approach to capture the stock dynamics of products. The lifetime is usually obtained empirically from statistical information and is assumed to describe the dynamics of the product and its components. However, for new types of products for which historic outflow data is limited, or in cases where a critical component plays a significant role in determining product end-of-life, a more refined understanding of the dynamics of product-component systems is needed. Here, we provide a new framework for product-component systems and 12 different approaches to model their stock dynamics. Then, we discuss which approaches are best suited in different contexts.We illustrate the use of the framework with a case study on electric vehicles and their batteries, highlighting the potential of battery replacement and reuse for reducing material demand. Improving the understanding of these complex systems is relevant for the study of the socio-economic metabolism because (i) accounting for component dynamics can support identifying unintended consequences of product-specific policies; (ii) component replacement and reuse can be a key circular economy strategy to foster efficient resource use; and (iii) accounting for these complex dynamics can lead to more accurate estimates for resource demand and waste-generation expectations, creating more resilient information streams. This article met the requirements for a Gold-Gold JIE data openness badge described at https://jie.click/badges.

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