Diquat and paraquat are non-specific defoliants that induce toxicity in many organs including the lung, liver, kidney and brain. This toxicity is thought to be due to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). An important pathway leading to ROS production by these compounds is redox cycling. In the present studies, diquat and paraquat redox cycling was characterized using human recombinant NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase, rat liver microsomes, and Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells constructed to overexpress cytochrome P450 reductase (CHO-OR) and wild type control cells (CHO-WT). In redox cycling assays with recombinant cytochrome P450 reductase and microsomes, diquat was 10-40 times more effective in generating ROS when compared to paraquat (KM = 1.0 and 44.2 μM, respectively for H2O2 generation by diquat and paraquat using recombinant enzyme, and 15.1 and 178.5 μM, respectively for microsomes). In contrast, at saturating concentrations, these compounds showed similar redox cycling activity (Vmax ≈ 6.0 nmoles H2O2/min/mg protein) for recombinant enzyme and microsomes. Diquat and paraquat also redox cycle in CHO cells. Significantly more activity was evident in CHO-OR cells than CHO-WT cells. Diquat redox cycling in CHO cells was associated with marked increases in protein carbonyl formation, a marker of protein oxidation, as well as cellular oxygen consumption, measured using oxygen microsensors; greater activity was detected in CHO-OR cells than CHO-WT cells. These data demonstrate that ROS formation during diquat redox cycling can generate oxidative stress. Enhanced oxygen utilization during redox cycling may reduce intracellular oxygen available for metabolic reactions and contribute to toxicity.

Estrogens are major risk factors for the development of breast cancer; they can be metabolized to catechols, which are further oxidized to DNA-reactive quinones and semiquinones (SQs). These metabolites are mutagenic and may contribute to the carcinogenic activity of estrogens. Redox cycling of the SQs and subsequent generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is also an important mechanism leading to DNA damage. The SQs of exogenous estrogens have been shown to redox cycle, however, redox cycling and the generation of ROS by endogenous estrogens has never been characterized. In the present studies, we determined whether the catechol metabolites of endogenous estrogens, including 2-hydroxyestradiol, 4-hydroxyestradiol, 4-hydroxyestrone and 2-hydroxyestriol, can redox cycle in breast epithelial cells. These catechol estrogens, but not estradiol, estrone, estriol or 2-methoxyestradiol, were found to redox cycle and generate hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and hydroxyl radicals in lysates of three different breast epithelial cell lines: MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 and MCF-10A. The generation of ROS required reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate as a reducing equivalent and was inhibited by diphenyleneiodonium, a flavoenzyme inhibitor, indicating that redox cycling is mediated by flavin-containing oxidoreductases. Using extracellular microsensors, catechol estrogen metabolites stimulated the release of H(2)O(2) by adherent cells, indicating that redox cycling occurs in viable intact cells. Taken together, these data demonstrate that catechol metabolites of endogenous estrogens undergo redox cycling in breast epithelial cells, resulting in ROS production. Depending on the localized concentrations of catechol estrogens and enzymes that mediate redox cycling, this may be an important mechanism contributing to the development of breast cancer.

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